461
1 INTRODUCTION
Plastics have found their way into hostile
environments due to their unique properties:
extraordinary material flexibility, low density,
mechanical stability and excellent electrical and
thermal insulation properties [1]. Plastic is non-toxic,
corrosion-resistant, bio-neutral and has high thermal
insulation properties. In addition, the production cost
of plastic is relatively low, it is a low-density material
and it provides a barrier to gases and moisture. All
these characteristics have led to plastics replacing other
packaging materials such as glass and paper.
The annual global production of plastics in 2023
was 413, 8 million tonnes continuously increasing year
on year [2]. Figure 1 shows the changes in plastic
production volumes between 2018 and 2023.
Figure 1. Global world plastic production 2018-2023. Source:
[2].
Microplastics in Sea Water: Contamination and
Environmental Risk
M. Popek
Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland
ABSTRACT: Plastic microplastics are widespread, found in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, and can even
be found in Antarctica and deep-sea sediments. Micropalstic has become a major pollutant of marine and ocean
waters in recent decades and poses a serious threat to the environment and human health. An estimated 5.25
trillion plastic particles float in the world's seas and oceans, releasing up to 23 600 tonnes of dissolved organic
carbon per year. Microplastic pollution is a serious phenomenon affecting marine ecosystems, aquatic life and
human health. Toxins and chemicals from the environment settle on its surface and can carry them up the food
chain. Given the different dimensions, shapes and densities of MPs, it is difficult to predict their behaviour in a
dynamic marine environment. The potential toxic properties of microplastics are mainly due to the additives and
monomers they contain. The widespread occurrence of microplastics in the marine environment and the need to
reduce the associated risks have been the subject of intensive research in recent years. Recently, the study of the
source, amount and distribution of microplastic contamination has become the focus of much research. This paper
aims to discuss the sources of microplastic pollution in the marine environment and discuss their potential risks
in the environment.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 20
Number 2
June 2026
DOI: 10.12716/1001.20.02.19
462
Global demand for plastics has increased over the
past decades as they have found widespread use in
many areas of the economy. Currently, the majority of
plastic produced is a synthetic organic polymer made
by polymerising monomers extracted from fossil fuels,
coal or gas. While conventional, fossil-based plastics
are made from oil and natural gas, bioplastics are
emerging on the market, which are made wholly or
partly from renewable raw materials such as maize,
wood. These raw materials contain biomass such as
cellulose, starch or sugar. They can also be
manufactured from waste and by-products [Fig. 2].
Bio-plastics that are produced from renewable
resources (‘bio-based’) are biodegradable. However, it
should be stressed that bio-plastics do not have to be
biodegradable, as they can be designed to be
sustainable like other plastics.
Degradable plastics can have a negative impact on
the environment, as can non-degradable plastics,
because they take time to degrade and sometimes
require different conditions from those found in
nature. It is therefore important that no plastic of any
kind ends up in the environment.
Figure 2. Materials used in the production of plastics. Source:
[2].
At the same time, this surge in plastic production
has contributed to an increase in plastic waste in
various environments [3,4]. Unfortunately, very little
plastic waste is recycled and very little plastic waste is
used for energy production. The majority of plastic
waste is landfilled and still a huge amount appears in
the environment [5]. The problem of plastic litter
(observed both on land and in the sea) has been the
subject of environmental research over many years. In
recent years, scientists, the UN, also many scientific
organisations and NGOs have been drawing attention
to the problem of global plastic pollution [6]. Plastic
waste has become a permanent threat to marine
ecosystems. It is estimated that between 20 and 53
million tonnes of plastics will enter aquatic ecosystems
by 2030 [7].
Fine plastic particles known as microplastics have
become the subject of intensive research as a hazardous
pollutant in recent years. Plastic waste when exposed
to environmental conditions degrades slowly. For most
plastics, microplastics can persist in the marine
environment for up to centuries due to their low
degradation rate. As a consequence, an enormous
number of plastic microparticles are generated during
the decomposition process.
Plastic microplastics are defined as plastic particles
smaller than 5 mm and are a serious problem affecting
marine ecosystems, marine life and human health [8,9].
Microplastics are plastic particles characterised by their
shape, colour, size, and polymer composition that
originate from various anthropogenic sources [10].
Microplastics come from two sources. Plastics that are
produced in millimetre sizes or smaller are defined as
primary microplastics. They are used in cosmetic
preparations, household products, cleaning products
and are also suitable as rust and paint removers, e.g.
for removing rust and paint from boat engines and
hulls [11]. Another important source of virgin
microplastics is the raw materials from which plastic
products are manufactured. Improper handling,
uncontrolled emissions from processing plants and
waste from plastic production are another reason for
the appearance of primary microplastics in the
environment.
Secondary microplastics are formed in the
environment as a result of the breakdown of larger
plastic components through chemical physical, and
biological processes [12]. The destruction and
breakdown of the structure of plastics leads to the
formation of microplastics. It should be emphasised
that in the case of the marine environment, the
continuous effects of turbulence, wave action and
abrasion increase the degradation of plastics.
In addition, physical factors such as sunlight,
including ultraviolet radiation, promote the
photodegradation of polymeric materials [13].
Processes degradation can also occur before plastics
are in the environment. Such microplastic sparticles are
formed during the use of products such as tyres,
textiles, or paints. Given the large number of plastic
particles that have been identified in the environment,
it has been estimated that most of these are secondary
microplastics [14].
Nanoplastics are tiny fragments of plastic < 100 nm
in size in at least two dimensions. Nanoplastics are
formed during the fragmentation of synthetic fibres
when clothes are washed and during the destruction of
plastic objects such as polystyrene.
Only 21% of microplastics are recycled or
incinerated, with the remaining 79% accumulating in
landflls or in the natural environment. Micropalstic has
become a major pollutant of marine and ocean waters
in recent decades and poses a serious threat to the
environment and human health. An estimated 5.25
trillion plastic particles float in the world's seas and
oceans, releasing up to 23 600 tonnes of dissolved
organic carbon per year [15]. The presence of
microplastics in the ocean was first reported in the
1970s [16]. Microplastic pollution is a serious
phenomenon affecting marine ecosystems, aquatic life
and human health. The widespread occurrence of
microplastics in the marine environment and the need
to reduce the associated risks have been the subject of
intensive research in recent years.
The aim of this paper is:
1. to identify the risks of plastic pollution, and in
particular microplastics in water and sediments of
the seas and oceans,
2. to point out research problems and gaps in current
research related to the distribution, identification
and harmfulness of microplastics in the aquatic
environment for more focused research in the
future.
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2 PRESENCE OF MICROPLASTICS IN THE SEA
ENVIRONMENT
The presence of microplastics has been observed, in the
seas and oceans, on the coasts of all continents, in
inland waters and even in deep-sea sediments. The
aquatic environment has been an area of serious risk
from microplastics pollution. Microplastics are carried
by wind, rivers, ocean currents over long distances,
contaminating distant waters and deep and marine
sediments. Compare with marine environment, the
microplastics concentration in freshwater
environments is less revealed [17]. Tides and ocean
currents mean that much of the plastic waste in the
marine environment remains in the coastal zone. It has
been estimated that approximately 80% of
microplastics in the marine environment comes from
land-based sources [13]. Since about half of the world's
population lives near coastal regions, plastic waste and
microplastic sparticles resulting from anthropogenic
activities enter the ocean via rivers and industrial
drainage systems. It should be emphasised that
shipping (commercial and passenger), coastal tourism,
oil rigs and aquaculture practices are all contributors to
microplastics pollution in the marine environment.
Many studies have confirmed the abundance and
distribution of microplastics pollution in the seas and
oceans, both in the water column and sediments (table
1, 2). A number of factors affecting the distribution and
number of microplastics particles in the environment
have been identified. Physical parameters such as wave
action, wind intensity, turbulence, sunlight intensity,
pressure, etc.,) are important factors.
In addition to this, human population, population
density, anthropogenic activities, size of water bodies,
waste management system and amount of sewage
effluent are important factors to be taken into account
[18].
Table 1. Polution levels of microplastics in water column
Location
Microplastics
Abundance
Shape of
materials
References
Atlantic
Ocean
(Portugal)
00-14,09
particles /m
3
fibres,
fragments,
[19]
Arctic Fiord
Water
0.15 particles /
dm
3
fibers, sheets,
fragments
[20]
Barents Sea
38-240
particles/m
3
fragments,
[21]
Black Sea
5.58–9.17
particles /m
3
fibres, films,
[22]
Brazil
7,62 particles
/m3
fibres,
fragments,
films, fibres,
[23]
Eastern Baltic
Sea
0,49 particles/m
3
fibers and
fragments
[24]
Gulf of
Finland
0,2-4,7 particles
/ dm
3
fibres
[25]
Monterey
Bay,
California
1,32 particles
/m
3
fibres,
fragments,
[26]
Persian Gulf
1500-46 000
particles /km
2
fibres
[27]
South China
Sea
0,7 particles /m
2
fragments,
fibres,
[28]
Table 2. Polution levels of microplastics in sediments
Location
Particle
sizes
Microplastics
Abundance
Shape of
materials
References
Antarctica
500-999
μm and
1000-1499
μm
0.1055
particles/m
2
2.1102
particles/m
3
fibres,
fragments,
films
[29]
Baltic Sea
0,5-5 mm
863/ particles kg-
1
fibres,
[30]
Great Australian
Bight
>50 μm
13,6 particles kg-
1
fibres,
[31]
Indian Coastline
>300 μm
12-439 particles
kg-1
fibres,
fragments,
[32]
Jiaozhou Bay,
China,
15-8 201
μm
1.21 particles kg-
1
fibres,
fragments,
[33]
Montenegrin
Coast
0,1-1,0
mm
307 particles kg-
1
filaments
fragments
[34]
Reggio Calabria
0,5-1,0
mm
603-1327
particles kg-1
fibres
[35]
Yellow Sea
34-4983
μm
119 particles kg-
1
foam, line,
fragments,
[36[
Western Baltic
Sea
0,2-5 mm
4,5 particle
particles kg-1
fibres and
fragments
[37]
Western
Mediterranean
Sea
0,063-5
mm
314, 53-409, 94
particles kg-1
fibres,
fragments,
films
[38]
Analysis of the available data indicates that the
amount of plastic microplastics varies considerably
between ocean regions. The largest quantities of
microplastic particles are found in the coastal waters of
large urban agglomerations, industrial areas with
intensive human activity, near tourist attractions and
harbours [39]. The amount of microplastic detected is
influenced by the time of year in which measurements
are taken. Vertical mixing of the water caused by waves
and wind causes microplastic particles to settle in the
bottom sediments. This is probably why the abundance
of microplastic in the water depth is higher in spring
and summer [40].
Most microplastics detected are colourless, white,
blue or red. colour and range in size from hundreds of
microns to a few millimetres. There are far fewer
reports on nanoplastics, probably due to the difficulties
probably due to the difficulty in detecting them [41].
Microplastic particles of five microplastic shapes (fiber,
film, fragment, foam, line) were detected in the water
samples. Study results suggest that the amount of
microplastic particles with a specific shape depends on
the particle fraction, with fibres being detected more
frequently than other shapes, such as fragments and
films, which only occur in a range of larger sizes
Fibre microplastics are likely to come from textiles,
materials used in fishing activities, and granular plastic
microplastics are mainly from human personal care
products. Microplastics of polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene and PET are present in the
marine environment because plastic products are
widely used in the economy and therefore there is a
high likelihood of them entering the marine
environment.
3 IMPACT OF MOICROPLASTICS ON THE
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
The smallest plastic fragments in the form of micro-
and nanoplastics, which remain in the marine
environment for a long, unknown period of time, raise
464
concerns about their potentially hazardous effects on
the environment. Plastic microplastics are widespread,
found in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, in
fish, birds, and can even be found in artic i water and
ice and deep-sea sediments [42]. Microplastics particles
have been detected in human food, air and drinking
water, raising concerns about the potential for
Microplastics to negatively impact human, animal and
ecosystem health [43].
Microplastics pollution is a serious phenomenon
affecting marine ecosystems, aquatic life and human
health. Toxins and chemicals from the environment
settle on its surface and can carry them up the food
chain [44]. Given the different dimensions, shapes and
densities of mirroplastics, it is difficult to predict their
behaviour in a dynamic marine environment.
Microplastics particles are relatively persistent in
the marine environment and their small size makes
them bioavailable to fish, lobsters, corals, zooplankton
and other marine organisms. Microplastics particles
are a growing global problem that pose a threat to
various marine organisms through their ingestion and
possible accumulation in the food chain. Studies of
marine biota have shown that exposure is most likely
to be due to Microplastics ingestion, as confirmed by
the presence of plastic fragments in animals
throughout the marine food chain, including
zooplankton, fish, marine mammals and seabirds [45].
Microplastics particles in an aqueous environment can
be broken down into smaller plastic fibres and
fragments, or even nanoplastics. They can be readily
absorbed by many organisms and can also penetrate
cell membranes. The potential toxic properties of
microplastics are mainly due to the additives and
monomers they contain.
Due to their specific physico-chemical properties,
microplastics have a surface on which contaminants
and microbial communities can absorb and
accumulate. The small size of microplastic particles
and their hydrophobic surfaces give them the ability to
adsorb contaminants present in the marine
environment, including persistent and
bioaccumulative toxic substances, metal ions,
antibiotics and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs). A number of studies have shown that various
contaminants are deposited on the surface of
microplastics particles, with the most important and
dangerous being:
− persistent organic pollutants, such as PCBs, PAHs,
and OCPs, etc.,
− algae, fungi, bacteria etc.,
− different heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn,
− antibiotic and metals resistant genes,
− pathogenic bacterial strains
An ecologically important issue is the adsorption of
persistent and toxic organic pollutants onto
microplastics particles. A number of studies that have
confirmed adsorption on the surface of microplastics
particles for toxic pollutants such as polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides
(OCPs). Hydrophobic microplastics particles have a
high surface-to-volume ratio, making them ideal for
the chemical adsorption of organic compounds.
Microplastics are derived from different plastics, and
have distinct chemical compositions that can also affect
the adsorption of organic pollutants. For example,
microplastics derived from high-density polyethylene,
low-density polyethylene, and propylene adsorbed
higher concentrations of PAHs and PCBs than particles
derived from polyethylene terephthalate and
polyvinyl chloride [42].
In the marine environment, micro-organisms such
as bacteria, viruses fungi and algae tend to attach to
and colonise both natural and synthetic surfaces and
‘form a biofilm’ [46]. The attachment of various
chemicals, including nutrients on microplastics
surfaces, ensures nutrient supply for colonising
microorganisms and provides them with a stable
habitat [47]. The type of microplastics particles
influences the variation in microbial communities and
it was shown that the variation in microbial
communities forming a film on the surface depended
on the composition of the microplastics particles rather
than their size [48]. Microbial growth on different types
of plastics can have environmental and ecological
consequences. Microplastics present in the
environment can favour the growth of selected
microorganisms while hindering the growth of others,
which can affect microbial ecological functions. The
presence of microplastic particles in the aquatic
environment allows the development and growth of
selective microbial communities in the ecosystem,
which can impair the functioning of such an ecosystem
[49]. In the case of algae, even if they do not ingest
microplastics, their growth and reproduction are
disrupted.
Heavy metals adsorb on microplastics surfaces in
marine environments. The study confirmed the
presence of zinc and copper on the surfaces of
microplastics derived from the breakdown of
polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [50].
Confirmation of the sorption of heavy metals on
microplastics surfaces is provided by the higher
concentration of various heavy metals of the
microplastics surface than from the surrounding
seawater [51]. Subsequent studies showed that the
concentrations of copper and zinc cations on the
surface of aged polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
particles were higher compared to their original
counterparts in water [52]. Ingestion by aquatic
organisms and entry into the food chain of
microplastics that have accumulated heavy metals on
their microplastics surfaces may cause additional
complications.
The presence of microplastics particles not only has
environmental consequences, it can affect public
health. Plastics can act both as a reservoir of antibiotic
resistance genes in the marine environment but can
provide a breeding ground for bacteria resistant to
many antibiotics. Antibiotic-resistant genes, including
penicillin, tetracycline, and erythromycin, were
detected in the genome of bacterial strains present on
the surface of selected microplastics particles [53]. In
addition to antibiotic-resistant bacteria, microplastics
also harbour various strains of bacteria that are
pathogenic to humans and aquatic organisms. A
serious threat to ecosystems can be the fact that
microplastics particles, due to their mobility, can
promote the transfer of pathogens from one
environment to another.
465
The presence of microplastics in seas and oceans
poses a threat to organisms living in the aquatic
environment, as microplastics can be easily ingested by
animals and accumulate and bioaccumulate in their
digestive, respiratory and organ systems [54]. Studies
have shown that among marine animals, fish are
susceptible to ingesting and ingesting microplastics
[55]. A study of three species of Atlantic fish found that
49% of the animals had microplastics in their gills,
digestive tracts, and back muscles [56].
In recent years, there has been increasing research
on the quality of seafood, as microplastic particles can
also enter the human food chain through the
consumption of seafood, causing negative health
effects for humans. Studies have shown that food
products are contaminated with plastic polymers: PP,
PE, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), PES, PVC, PS,
PA and nylon [57].
4 CHALLENGES AND ADVANCEMENT
Recently, the study of the source , amount and
distribution of microplastic contamination has become
the focus of much research. Most of the current
research on plastic microplastics in the marine
environment focuses on the sources of microplastics,
their identification, while less attention is paid to the
interaction with contaminants and biological toxicity.
A number of problems can be identified that need
to be addressed in relation to the presence of
microplastics in the environment (Fig.3).
Figure 3 . Challenges and issues in research on the presence
of microplastics in the environment
The presence of plastic microplastics is still a
relatively new area of research, and methods to detect
their presence and distribution in different areas of the
marine environment have been developing for about
two decades. However, the lack of standardised testing
methods will lead to large knowledge gaps in the study
of the type and isolation of microplastic from the
environment. Thus, the development of effective
analytical methods is an important and complex
challenge.
Both sampling and testing of marine microplastics
should be carried out with great care, as samples are
easily contaminated by fibres and airborne plastic
particles. In addition, all equipment used in the field
and laboratory should be as plastic-free as possible.
Testing and identification of microplastics samples
collected in the environment is labour-intensive, and
costly due to the consumables used and the testing
with specialised, high-tech equipment used .
Laboratory testing costs vary depending on the type of
matrix tested [58]. The identification and
characterization of microplastics are still limited.
Microscopy is most often used to identify
microplastics. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR) is also used to analyze microplastics. The
spectra obtained in this method show characteristic
peaks that correspond to specific chemical bonds. The
composition of the tested microplastic sample is
identified by comparing the obtained spectrum with a
database of reference spectra. The accuracy of FITR is
limited because the reference spectra are derived from
pure plastic and wet-plastic samples, which do not
occur naturally in the environment and are usually
already contaminated. Therefore, it is necessary to
develop analytical techniques to study the properties
of pure and environmentally aged microplastics as
well as their interactions with contaminants present in
water and bottom sediments.
The development and application of various
methods for sampling and identification of
microplastics have made it possible to confirm the
presence of microplastics in surface waters worldwide.
To date, most studies have been qualitative and the
differences between the methods used make it difficult
to compare the results obtained [59]. Microplastic
particles in seawater are collected using a variety of
devices. Which results in research material being
collected from different layers of the water column.
Understanding the true impact and extent of the plastic
particle problem is hampered by the lack of
standardised analytical techniques for quantifying
microplastics in water and marine sediments. The need
for standardisation of methods and techniques in the
study of microplastics in the environment is mainly
related to measurement units and methods for
isolating microplastic particles from the test material.
Most often, the amount is determined by the
number of microplastic per liter or cubic meter of
water. However, in the case of microplastic in
sediments, the number of microplastic particles per
unit of dry or wet weight is usually used. A unified
standard for concentration of microplastics will be
more favourable to compare the microplastic pollution
levels in different areas. Standardizing the units of
microplastic concentrations would facilitate
comparisons of the amount of microplastic pollution in
different seas and oceans.
The mechanism of adsorption of toxic organic
pollutants on microplastic surfaces is relatively poorly
studied, as it varies for different chemicals with
complex structures [60]. As microplastic particles
interact with contaminants present in the marine
environment, new, unknown ecological threats may
emerge. It is therefore necessary to study the combined
effects of microplastics with other contaminants in the
environment.
The presence of microplastics in the aquatic
environment is a scientific as well as a societal problem.
One of the main unresolved issues is the development
of remediation methods to be implemented to remove
microplastic particles from the environment, including
water bodies [61].
5 CONCLUSIONS
Plastics are undeniably beneficial to society, but their
waste has become an environmental hazard, as
466
evidenced by areas with high concentrations of
microplastic particles.
Microplastic pollution in the marine environment is
of concern as studies in various parts of the world
Microplastics are one of the most significant
contaminants in the aquatic environment have shown
that it is present in the environment. Unfortunately,
there is still insufficient knowledge about microplastics
in marine and inland waters, including the effects on
the health of living organisms. Approaches to
microplastic characterisation are still limited. Current
methods for environmental sampling, identifying
quantitative analysis of microplastics, are expensive
and time-consuming and require specialist knowledge.
In contrast, field sampling in most cases is relatively
straightforward. The future standardization of
microplastic concentration units will make it possible
to compare the state of microplastic pollution in
different seas and oceans.
Current research on the effects of microplastics on
the diverse marine environment is still at an early stage
and intensive research is needed to understand the
impact of microplastics on the marine environment.
Such studies would also determine the combined
impact of plastic microplastics and other marine
debris. Further research is needed to describe the
mechanism of heavy metal adsorption on microplastic
surfaces, as this phenomenon has health and ecological
consequences.
Public awareness of the long-term, negative effects
of microplastic pollution is still low. Therefore, raising
awareness of how plastic waste pollutes the natural
environment is an important part of reducing plastic
consumption by the global community.
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