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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Framework and Motivation

The shipping industry is one of the most important

sectors of the global economy, transporting the

majority of the world's goods [1]. However, due to its

complexity and exposure to natural and man-made

hazards, shipping is vulnerable to crises that can have

serious economic, environmental and social impacts

[2]. Maritime crises include events such as maritime

accidents, disruption of maritime trade routes,

technical failures of ships, as well as attacks by pirates

or terrorist acts. Maritime accidents, such as ship

collisions, collisions with rocks, fires, fuel or cargo

spills, often cause loss of life, significant environmental

damage, and major economic losses [3]. Managing

maritime crises requires immediate response, effective

communication and coordination between various

actors, such as shipowners, shipping companies, port

authorities and international organizations [4]. In

addition, prevention through strict adherence to safety

rules, crew training and the use of modern monitoring

technologies is crucial to reducing the risk of accidents

[5], [6]. Overall, addressing shipping crises and

reducing maritime accidents are fundamental

challenges for the safe and sustainable operation of the

global maritime community.

The problem that arises in the operation of

passenger ships during accidents and other unforeseen

events is multidimensional and affects both the safety

and the financial and operational operation of the ship

[7]. More specifically, there are risks to the life and

Managing Maritime Crises: A Systematic Literature

Review of Passenger Ships’ Operations During

Accidents and Unforeseen Events Using the PSALSAR

Method

K.A. Chrysafis & G.C. Papadopoulou

University of the Aegean, Chios, Greece

ABSTRACT: International organisations and shipping companies placed particular emphasis on ship safety both

in the covid and post-covid eras. In 2023, passenger shipping experienced a rapid increase in the number of

passengers as a response to the recently resolved crisis. With the full resumption of passenger shipping,

significant changes were made to ship’s operational practices to fully align with the new health protocols. These

changes were not limited to health-related aspects but also led to the redesign of the ship's operational practices

at multiple levels. What has now become clear to stakeholders in the shipping industry -and even more so in the

passenger shipping sector- is that unforeseen events can escalate into crises of various magnitudes. A multi-level

redesign of ship operations (including engineering, navigation, safety, environmental, security, administrative,

and commercial operations, etc.) became necessary for the effective management of unexpected crises and for

identifying visible risks. This paper conducts a systematic literature review using the improved version of the

SALSA method, the PSALSAR method. The Scopus database was used to extract high-quality and reliable

academic papers. The results identify the most significant changes in passenger ship operations, and reveal a new

philosophy for crisis management in the passenger shipping sector.

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 20

Number 2

June 2026

DOI: 10.12716/1001.20.02.07

312

safety of passengers and crew, operation disruption

and delays, financial losses, company reputation and

credibility, legal and regulatory implications,

environmental impacts and more [8].

1.2 Rationale for the selected timeframe (2023-2025)

This review focuses on the period 2023-2025. The

following subsections outline the rationale for selecting

this time frame to study maritime crisis management

through maritime accidents.

1.2.1 New guidelines from international organizations in

the post-COVID era

The IMO, through the Maritime Safety Committee

(MSC), has made significant changes to the SOLAS

Convention with the ultimate aim of substantially

enhancing safety on ships. More specifically, at the

107th session of the MSC (May-June 2023), the new

regulation II-1/3-13 was adopted, concerning the

requirements for the application, design, construction,

operation, inspection, testing and maintenance of

ships' lifting appliances and anchor handling winches

[9]. In addition, EMSA, in collaboration with the

ECDC, provided essential guidance for the safe

resumption of cruise ship activity in the European

Union. These guidelines, among others, include the

minimum number of measures that need to be

implemented by all stakeholders, while respecting

general safety standards [10]. With regard to

enhancing health security, the World Health

Organization has developed the core components

aimed at the proper management of health security on

board ships, including passenger ships. These

guidelines address issues such as the management of

cases of infectious diseases, the use of personal

protective equipment and isolation protocols [11]. In

the same context, the EU Healthy Gateways initiative

provides guidelines for preparedness and response to

infectious diseases at points of entry and on means of

transport, including passenger ships. These guidelines

are related to tools for planning, developing and

evaluating emergency response techniques [12].

1.2.2 Return to passenger shipping and update

operational practices

In 2023, the global cruise industry recorded a record

number of passengers, reaching 31.7 million

passengers, exceeding 2019 levels by 7%. This makes it

clear that the industry has fully recovered after the

COVID-19 pandemic [13]. In terms of their health

operational practices, cruise lines such as Carnival

Cruise Line have adopted new health protocols,

including measures such as encouraging pre-trip

testing for infectious diseases, continuous training of

crews to deal with health crises at all stages of the crisis,

and constant information to passengers about health

safety measures during the trip [14]. Beyond these,

however, cruise lines have emphasized restoring

passenger confidence. This was achieved through

communication practices based on theories such as

social exchange theory and perceived value theory,

adapting the services provided to provide a

personalized and safe experience, such as increasing

private spaces and limiting shared ones [15]. As a final

touch, the cruise industry collaborated with

organizations such as the World Health Organization

(WHO) and the European Center for Disease

Prevention and Control (ECDC) resulting in the

development and implementation of new health safety

protocols [16].

1.2.3 The role of new technologies in redesigning

operational practices for health reasons

Passenger ships have now incorporated artificial

intelligence and machine learning techniques,

resulting in a noticeable improvement in their

operational functions. As an example, the use of

machine learning facilitates the monitoring of

passenger flow in real time through CCTV cameras,

providing the crew with the ability to better manage

situations such as overcrowding of passengers in

common areas and directing them to less crowded

areas within the ship [17]. In the post-COVID era, the

cruise industry adopted digital tools to monitor

passenger health and detect cases. One example is the

"MSC for Me" app and tracking bracelets to capture

points of passenger concentration, thus facilitating the

identification of potential of contacts with cases [18].

Virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR) technologies

are also making a significant contribution to

preventing the spread of infectious diseases, and are

being integrated into cruise ships, offering new

experiences to passengers. These technologies are

widely used to provide virtual tours, educational

programs and interactive activities. The result is to

enhance the passenger experience through safe

alternative activities compared to traditional ones.

Finally, rapid developments in satellite technology

have significantly improved connectivity capabilities

on passenger ships. Satellite systems allow for dynamic

internet access, enhanced communication, and

increased safety through real-time monitoring of

developments [19].

1.2.4 New Operational Practices beyond Sanitation

During the period under review, shipping

companies have also made major investments in

alternative fuels such as liquefied natural gas (LNG),

methanol and hybrid battery propulsion. The aim is for

ships to respond to rapidly changing and more

stringent environmental regulations. A typical

example is MSC World America as well as Royal

Caribbean's Star of the Seas, which will operate on

LNG from 2025 onwards. Also, Havila Voyages ships

that use hybrid LNG and battery propulsion systems

[20]. New innovative technologies such as artificial

intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT) and

digital twins, in the context of this time redesigning

operational functions, have enhanced the performance

of ships. These innovative technologies lead to the

optimization of routes and the automation of tasks,

resulting in the reduction of operating costs and

increased safety. The adoption of the new and more

demanding regulatory framework in the EU Emissions

Trading System (EU ETS) from 2025 in combination

with the stricter requirements for ballast water

management and cybersecurity have as a direct

consequence the investments of the companies in

cleaner energy technologies and an increase in safety

systems [21]. A key factor in the redesign of procedures

is the restrictions in ports in the last two years due to

both overtourism and environmental concerns, such as

313

in Amsterdam and Norway, which have led passenger

shipping companies to redesign their itineraries and

invest in new technologies such as shore power to

reduce emissions during port stays.

1.3 Study Objectives and Structure

This study aims to analyze the passenger ship’s

operations during accidents by applying a Systematic

Literature Review with PSALSAR, a methodological

approach used for structured and systematic literature

review, especially in fields that require analytical

investigation and management of large volumes of

scientific articles. The research questions include the

main types of passenger ship’s accidents, the types of

accidents which appear most frequently, the main

techniques, methodologies, models and tools

(regarding ship’s operations) to manage the accidents,

the improvements applied and the approaches

demonstrating potential for broader implementation.

Hereafter the article follows a classical structure while

being carefully adapted to the systematic process of the

PSALSAR method.

2 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Rationale

Systematic Literature Review (SLR) is a scientific

method by which you collect, evaluate and analyze

existing published studies to answer specific research

questions, in a structured, repeatable and objective

manner. SLR follows a predefined protocol, contains

objective inclusion/exclusion criteria, includes all

relevant articles based on rules and documents each

stage, how the search was done, what was rejected and

why. Its purpose is to collect and analyze all reliable

publications on a specific topic, identify gaps in

knowledge, assist in decision-making and serve as a

basis for future research or proposal [22]. Research can

provide reliable conclusions, when the process is

performed correctly and has minimal error, that could

help decision makers [23], [24], [25].

The typical steps of the SLR are (i) defining a

research question, (ii) creating a protocol (e.g.

keywords, databases, exclusion/inclusion criteria), (iii)

literature search, (iv) screening, (v) article quality

assessment (vi) data extraction from sources, (vii)

result synthesis/analysis and (viii) writing a final

report [26], [27].

2.2 Scopus as a reliable source for systematic reviews

The internationally recognized scientific database

“Scopus” was used to collect the literature, due to its

broad coverage and the strict indexing process it

applies. This database includes articles from journals of

high scientific level, published by leading publishing

houses such as Elsevier, MDPI, Springer - Verlag,

Taylor & Francis, and others. The selection of these

databases aims to ensure the quality, validity and

representativeness of the publications analyzed,

avoiding unreviewed or invalid scientific works.

Despite the limited number of publications (16 final

articles), the study is characterized as a systematic

review, as the PSALAR methodology was fully applied

and the search was strictly limited to recent sources

from the period 2023-2025, from the Scopus database.

2.3 Why PSALSAR? A Comparison with PRISMA

The crises occurring in the shipping industry such as

navigational accidents, human errors, environmental

hazards, etc. are multifactorial phenomena, which are

extremely rare to be analyzed only quantitatively.

Their analysis requires interpretation of experiences,

narratives, organizational behavior and many more.

As a consequence of the above statements, PSALSAR is

considered more suitable as a method since it allows

qualitative synthesis (thematic synthesis, interpretive

analysis), in contrast to PRISMA which is more suitable

for quantitative, evidence-based medical reviews [27],

[26]. Regarding the management of operations in such

case studies, it is investigated how ships operate in

critical situations, which includes both

leadership/decision-making/communication/crew

reaction and organizational parameters, which are

usually recorded in qualitative studies such as case

studies, interviews, reports, etc. Consequently, in this

paper the goal is to synthesize qualitative material and

not simply to count types of accidents. This fact

reinforces the use of PSALSAR. Regarding accidents

and unforeseen events, these are not predefined

variables that are analyzed quantitatively. The aim is to

highlight how organizations react, learn and manage

the unexpected. Therefore, an analysis tool is needed

that responds to the dynamic nature of the

phenomenon, something that PSALSAR serves better

than the rigid nature of PRISMA. To sum up, based on

the complexity and interpretive nature of maritime

crises, the PSALSAR context was chosen instead of the

PRISMA one. This adoption responds to the need for

qualitative synthesis of context-rich data related to ship

operations, decision-making, and crisis management,

aspects that are often not applicable to quantitative

analysis but presume thematic analysis and critical

approach [29].

PSALSAR framework is very useful for the current

study as it organizes the problem precisely. It helps the

researcher in how to search, what to exclude, how to

organize the data, thereby reducing the risk of missing

critical sources. It allows comparative analysis of

practices, as to which procedures are applied in cases

of a crisis. It identifies gaps in the literature and it helps

the researcher build a strong theoretical background as

conducting a review of relevant literature is an

important part of any scientific discipline [30].

Six steps are applied and demonstrated below in

Table 1.

Table 1. The frameworks for systematic reviews

Steps

Outcomes

Methods

PSALSAR framework

Protocol

Determine the study scope

Passenger ship’s operations

during accidents

Determine the search strategy

Search in databases

Appraisal

Control the quality and

relevance of the results

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

and quality criteria

Synthesis

Combine and compare

findings from sources

Categorize the data and

analyze them

Analysis

Interpretation of results

Answer research questions

Report

Writing and presenting the

literature review based on the

previous stages.

Summarize the report

314

2.4 The first four steps

SLR methodology step 1– Protocol

In this stage the most important issue is to

determine the research scope. The PICOC (Population,

Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, and Context)

framework is used to define the research scope and is

demonstrated in table 2 and it applies to the steps of

SLR.

To define the problem, the following research

questions are formed:

− RQ1. Which are the main types of passenger ship’s

accidents?

− RQ2. Which types of accidents appear most

frequently?

− RQ3. Which are the main techniques,

methodologies, models and tools (regarding ship’s

operations) to manage the accidents?

− RQ4. How can these approaches be improved?

− RQ5. Which approaches demonstrate potential for

broader implementation?

The above research questions will be answered by

following the PSALSAR framework.

Table 2. SLR research scope based on the PICOC framework

Concept

Definition

SLR application

Population

The research

works related to

ship's operations

during accidents

and unforeseen

events.

Scientific studies on passenger ship's

operations (business as usual or emergency

protocols) during crises. More specifically,

collision, machinery or technical failures, fire

or explosion, flooding or water ingress,

environmental hazards, cargo incidents,

human error, medical or crew issues, piracy or

security threats, pollution, legal incidents,

crowd related incidents.

Intervention

Techniques,

methodologies,

models and tools

for crisis/es

management.

Focusing on the shortages and the points that

can be improved: for example, developing

techniques, methodologies, models and tools

that deal with the four dimensions of crisis

management [31], prevention, preparation,

response, revision in the three crisis stages,

pre-crisis, and post crisis.

Comparison

Ways to compare

the effectiveness

and the efficiency

of the various

types of

intervention.

Differences in the quantity of the demanded

sources, speed and quality of results, gain of

experience/tools for a future accident/event.

Outcome(s)

A database to

assess the

existing

knowledge and

the gaps in the

papers under

examination in

the passenger

ship's operations

during crisis/es.

The existing knowledge contains accidents and

unforeseen events categories,

techniques/methodologies/models/tools for

crisis management in the passenger ships, and

the contribution of each study. The mentioned

gaps contain assumptions/limitations and

modeling/methodology weaknesses, lack of

papers to achieve a generalized approach that

can be tailored and customized for each

different case.

Context

Focusing on

different types of

crises or on the

different parts of

the crisis

management

process related to

the ship's

operations in

both cases.

Studies focusing on ship operations: in the

most frequently appeared types of crises, in the

different crisis stages, related to the

composition and hierarchy of the crisis

management team, based on the geographical

location the and the local legal framework.

SLR methodology step 2 - Search

In this phase we searched articles related to the

topic from Scopus, an international database for peer-

reviewed publications. In Table 3 the serching terms

and the number of publications are depicted.We used

the Scopus database as it aims to ensure the quality,

validity and representativeness of the publications

analyzed, avoiding unreviewed or invalid scientific

works. The total number of articles in the initial search

was 157. The seach strings and search items include

both primary and secondary search terms. In the

primary search terms we used the “article title, abstract

and keywords” to find related papers to be included in

our study. The main keyword in the primary search

was “passenger ship’s operations during accidents”

where we found 104 similar articles. The next step

refers to the keyword “passenger ship’s operations”

with additional keywords each time. The keyword

“collision” apperead in 16 articles, “machinery or

technical failures” and “pollution” in 3 articles, “fire or

explosion” in 14 articles, “flooding or water ingress”

and “environmental hazards” in 1 article, “cargo

incidents” in 4 articles, “human error” in 6 articles,

“medical or crew issues” in 5 articles, while the

keywords “piracy or security threats”, “legal

incidents” and “crowd related incidents” did not

appear in any other article in the Scopus database.

Table 3. The searching terms and the number of publications

Databases

Search string and

search terms

Keywords

No of

articles

Retrieval

date

Scopus

Primary search

terms using article

title, abstract and

keywords

“Passenger ship’s operations

during accidents”

104

25/08/2025

Secondary search

terms

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND “collision”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND

“machinery or technical

failures”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND “fire or

explosion”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND “flooding

or water ingress”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations”

AND“environmental

hazards”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND“cargo

incidents”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND“human

error”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND“medical

or crew issues”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND“piracy or

security threats”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND“pollution”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND“legal

incidents”

25/08/2025

“Passenger ship’s

operations” AND“crowd

related incidents”

25/08/2025

Source: Authors’ calculations from Scopus database

315

In the next step, inclusion and exclusion criteria are

presented which are key elements of the methodology

that determine which studies will be included or

excluded from the review. Their role is to ensure the

systematic, objectivity and reproducibility of the

scientific review. They allow the researchers to select

only studies that are relevant to the subject and field of

research, reducing the possibility of subjective study

selection. These criteria can be found in Table 4.

Table 4. Criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of articles

Criteria

Decision

The keywords appear as a whole or in title, keywords, abstract

Inclusion

The articles refer to the time period 2023-2025

Inclusion

The abstract content is relative to the research topic

Inclusion

The articles were conference papers, book chapters, conference

review

Exclusion

The articles are duplicated

Exclusion

The articles lack the context of passengers ships‘ accidents

Exclusion

SLR methodology step 3 - Appraisal

Step 3.1 - Selection of related studies

In Figure 1 the screening process is presented,

through a flow diagram, selecting the relevant articles

from Scopus database. Initially, 157 Scopus articles

were found. After that, duplicated articles, conference

papers, book chapters, conference reviews and reviews

were excluded and the number of the articles were

limited to 75. In the next step, another 39 articles were

excluded which were outdated and 20 more were

excluded as they lack passenger ship’s accidents. The

papers included for analysis are 16.

Step 3.2 - Quality assessment

The following criteria were used for the evaluation

of the SLR and are grounded on five quality assessment

questions.

Figure 1. The flow diagram for the database search of

publications for systematic reviews. Source: Modified from

authors

− 1. Are the inclusion and exclusion criteria well-

defined?

− 2. Does the literature review cover the most recent

and comprehensive articles?

− 3. Do the selected articles have significant number

of citations?

− 4. Is the type of passengers ships’ operations

described adequately?

− 5. Does the article present one or more types of

accidents?

− 6. Does the article demonstrate a crisis (accident)

management approach?

SLR methodology step 4 - Synthesis

Synthesis is one of the most critical and creative

stages in the SLR methodology, because it is not just a

summary of the individual articles - it is the

comprehensive, organized interpretation of their

findings to highlight what we know (and what we

don't) about our research questions [32].

It includes the extraction and sorting of data from

selected tasks. In Table 5 the criteria for the extraction

of the informationare demonstrated. This research

used seven criteria, which is the year of publication, the

article content related to passenger ships’ operations,

the types of data sources, the research methodology,

the number of accidents, the proposed improvements

and articles related to crisis model.

Table 5. Criteria for the extraction of information

Criteria

Categories

considered

Justification

Year of

publication

2023 - 2025

See the related section

Article content

related to

passenger

ships’

operations

Yes / No

How are the operational functions of a

passenger ship affected during accidents in a

period of crisis

Types of data

sources

Primary,

secondary,

mixed

Primary sources are the direct data or

materials that the researcher collects

firsthand to answer his or her research

question.

Secondary sources are information that has

already been collected, analyzed, or

interpreted by others.

Mixed sources refer to cases where both

primary and secondary sources are used

together in order to obtain a more

comprehensive and multifaceted picture of

the topic being studied.

Research

methodology

Quantitative,

qualitative,

mixed,

experimental,

interpretive,

action model

Qualitative research is a form of scientific

inquiry that focuses on understanding

phenomena through the analysis of

experiences, opinions, attitudes, and social

behaviors.

Quantitative research is a scientific method

used to collect and analyze numerical

(quantitative) data for the purpose of

measuring variables, detecting correlations,

or generalizing results to larger populations.

Mixed research is a research approach that

combines quantitative and qualitative

methods to provide a more comprehensive

picture of the phenomenon being studied.

Experimental research is a type of scientific

research in which the researcher controls and

varies one or more variables (factors) to

observe their effects on other variables.

Interpretive research is a qualitative research

method that aims to understand the meaning

that people give to their experiences, their

actions, and the world around them.

Action research model is a methodology that

combines research with action to solve

practical problems.

No of

accidents

At least 1

In order for this research to be documented, a

prerequisite is that at least one passenger

ship accident under investigation has

occurred.

Proposed

improvements

Yes / No

Improvements are expected in the post-

Covid era.

Related to

crisis model

Yes / No

Impact on operations management for the

purpose of crisis management

316

3 RESULTS

The results presented in this article are derived from

step 5 of the SLR methodology, known as the Analysis

phase. This ensures that the results are grounded in a

structured and methodologically rigorous process.

[33] design a risk analysis framework consisting of

two stages. The first is to identify the hazard and the

second is to assess the risk. In this context, quantitative

research and more specifically multi-criteria analysis

methods (Failure Modes and Effects Analysis Analytic

Hierarchy Process, Belief rule based Bayesian

networks, Evidential reasoning algorithm and

prioritize risks in the HEPS process. The FMEA, AHP,

BRB-BNs and Evidential Reasoning (ER) methods offer

powerful tools for analyzing and supporting decisions

in complex systems. The final deliverable of this

research effort is an analytical framework based on the

four axes Human, Ship, Environment and

Organization (HSEO) for HEPS. More specifically, this

study aims to 1) identify risk factors in the HEPS

process and 2) develop a new evaluation framework

for quantifying and ranking risk factors in the HEPS

process. It will undoubtedly help to address the safety

issues that are of the most concern to stakeholders in

passenger ship operations. The key areas for

improvement are Reliability issues in the HEPS process

are studied from the perspective of a whole evacuation

system (assembly, abandonment and rescue)/risk

factors affecting the HEPS process are identified based

on both marine casualty investigation reports and

literature review. Also, given the limitations of the

research data, the authors employ BBN and ER

algorithms to address the uncertainty of expert

knowledge and propose a risk assessment model

utilizing the advantages of integrated FMEA, BBN, ER

and utility function. Through this analytical work, the

research gap between existing HEPS studies and

practical passenger ship emergency response becomes

particularly evident.

[34] also develop a two-stage model. This model is

called the Mass Rescue Operation (MRO) decision

support model (MRO model), and its goal is to make

the most complete (in time and number), as possible,

use of the available resources used during the rescue

process. The authors use quantitative research, and

more specifically the combinatorial optimization

theory, in the MRO model. Combinatorial optimization

theory offers powerful tools for solving selection,

allocation and routing problems, where the optimal

solution is required through a finite but very large

number of possible combinations. The model uses

rescue capacity of multiple different resources as well

as the simultaneous use and interaction between them,

the types of accidents and the respective condition of

the marine environment. This process is implemented

in two stages. In the first stage, the optimization of the

rescue time by Classical Selection Sort Algorithm and

in the second stage, the number of resources by

Simulated Annealing Arithmetic (SAA) integrated

with Genetic Algorithm (GA) is performed. The added

value of this research is related to the organization of

limited rescue resources. (2) From the perspective of

MSAR regulations and practices of maritime search

and rescue authorities and the optimization of rescue

time and number of resources taking into account

MSAR regulations and practices of maritime search

and rescue authorities.

[35] present fire and evacuation analysis models for

real-time PBFRA (performance-based fire risk

assessment) for ships and introduce a system that

processes these analyses in real-time. The system uses

open-source development tools for greater scalability,

creating a database of fire and evacuation analysis

results to enable risk-based assessments. PBFRA in the

article is used with a primary emphasis on quantitative

methods through numerical models and data, but is

enriched with qualitative elements, especially in the

scenario selection and risk interpretation phases.

Therefore, it is a mixed approach, with a quantitative

core. The findings suggest that real-time performance

assessment technology can mitigate crew liability in

emergency situations and reduce casualties from

delayed reactions. This approach can play an essential

role in the future management of ship safety and

provides fundamental data to promote research and

application in fire safety at sea. This system aims to

create a practical response framework for effectively

dealing with fire incidents on ships.

[36] present the motion prediction model (MPM),

which is a ship behavior prediction model that predicts

and provides short-term motion by analyzing the

ship's position and motion characteristics in real time,

relevant to navigation safety. The MPM consists of a

kinematic algorithm and dynamic types such as the

EKF (Extended Kalman Filter) and DEKF (Dynamic

Extended Kalman Filter) algorithms. The research

methodology they use is quantitative methods through

numerical models and data, but is enriched with

qualitative elements, especially regarding real-time

motion characteristics. Therefore, it is a mixed

approach. By developing this model, the authors

achieve the prediction of ship behavior in real time,

such as passing between ships in areas with traffic

congestion or narrow waterways. This model is

expected to play an important role in safety

management and accident reduction, as well as in the

operation of self-navigating ships in ports. Ships on

which the MPM navigation support systems will be

installed are expected to have enhanced operational

safety.

[37] calculates the accident reduction rate (ARR)

associated with the Maritime Traffic Safety Assessment

(MTSA). This rate is required to calculate the safety

benefits before and after the extension of the system’s

scope. The extension of the system’s scope concerns the

inclusion of waterways of maritime routes for coastal

passenger ships less than 100m in length. The research

methodology of the study is quantitative. More

specifically, the author uses machine learning (random

forest) and oversampling techniques (SMOTE) for

accident prediction, Spatial data analysis with GIS to

identify relevant routes and accidents, and Statistical

data processing and modeling to calculate the accident

reduction rate. Therefore, it is a quantitative approach

using computational and statistical tools. This

deliverable analyses the safety and efficiency benefits

of extending the scope of the system to include

maritime waterways for coastal passenger ships of less

than 100 m in length. It also contributes to the

improvement of the MTSA system in comparison with

the resulting safety benefits and the administrative and

financial burden on the operators. Future application

317

of the results of this study in safety benefit assessments

could provide evidence for the improvement of the

MTSA system. Furthermore, the findings of this study

may be useful in identifying appropriate regulatory

relaxation or improvements in similar regulatory

frameworks.

[38] propose a new urban passenger ferry called

milliampere 2. The design features and test results of

milliampere 2 cover the investigation of five research

questions related to human-centered design, batteries

and propulsion, autonomous navigation and control,

remote monitoring and control, and risk assessment.

The research methodology of the study for the

“milliAmpere2” ferry is mixed (a mixture of

quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative is related to

the use of sensors, statistical analysis, tests with real

users (e.g. questionnaires. Qualitative concerns

interviews, observation of passenger behavior, human

factors analysis. Finally, simulations, field tests, and

risk analysis with Bayesian networks are also used. The

milliAmpere2 test yielded research results within the

context of its operational environment, a limited and

high-traffic urban waterway. At this point, it should

not be overlooked that the public trial operation was

first held in 2022. However, the processing of the

results and the drawing of conclusions was carried out

later, after 2023 as the answers to the 5 research

questions of the paper were given based on the current

(of the years 2023-2024) technological, economic, social

data and legislative framework (regulatory constraints

and gaps). The "milliAmpere2" project is another

project that demonstrates the viability of autonomous

surface vehicles (ASV) for passenger transport. The

design of "milliAmpere2" and its testing provided

answers to five research questions that cover distinct

topics. Regarding Users and design, it applied a

Human-Centered Design methodology, recording

passenger requirements (space, accessibility, safety)

and integrating them into the design of the ferry.

Regarding the Propulsion Engine, it developed a fully

electric propulsion system with 4 independent

batteries and 4 azimuth pods, ensuring reliability,

safety and zero emissions. Regarding Navigation and

collision avoidance, it implemented an autonomy

system with sensors (Lidar, cameras, radar) and

advanced collision avoidance algorithms, achieving

safe navigation in an urban canal. Regarding the issue

of remote control and human factors, designed and

tested Remote Operating Center (ROC), evaluating the

performance of operators through simulations and

interviews. Finally, in the risk assessment, he

developed risk assessment models with Bayesian

networks for possible failures, collisions and human

errors, proposing appropriate mitigation measures.

The paper synthesizes all of the above into a successful

example of an operational autonomous passenger

ferry, influencing institutional, technical and social

fields.

[39] assess data protection risk by applying System-

Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) with Data

Protection Impact Assessment (DPIA) for regulatory

alignment. The research uses a qualitative

methodology, as it is based on theoretical analysis and

the application of the STPA (System-Theoretic Process

Analysis) method to assess data protection risks. It

does not include quantitative methods or statistical

analysis but focuses on the systematic approach and

interpretive analysis of data. This general approach is

expected to enhance the processing of data protection

in the maritime industry, both at the operations and

assessment levels, with the possibility of future

application in real operational conditions. Among the

proposed standards and methods, the present study

focuses in particular on approaching innovative

aspects of data protection assessment, both at the

research and regulatory levels, filling existing gaps in

the maritime industry. The common risk assessment

methods applied in shipping are combined with Data

Protection Impact Assessment (DPIA), constituting a

new contribution of this study. This approach offers

new insights into data protection assessment in the

shipping sector.

[40] present a new approach to cyber risk

management against cyber physical systems in general

and Autonomous Passenger Ships in particular. The

research uses a mixed methodology, combining

quantitative and qualitative approaches. At the level of

Qualitative analysis, it does a Systematic Literature

Review (SLR) and stakeholder requirements analysis.

At the level of Quantitative analysis, it forms Risk

Assessment Algorithms, Simulations and Performance

Measurements. Finally, as a Practical Application, it

does tests on a real ferry (milliAmpere2) and

simulations for validation. The article proposes an

enhanced cyber risk management approach,

combining the Defense-in-Depth strategy with

elements from Threat-Informed Defense. It applies this

approach to a cybersecurity architecture for the

milliAmpere2 autonomous ship and evaluates its

cybersecurity through literature review, simulations,

checklists, and simulated attacks. The evaluation

highlighted deficiencies and suggested improvement

measures.

[41] use Automatic Identification System (AIS) data,

a “bottom-up” examines whether the lifting of port

prevention regulations in the post-COVID era will

affect ship activity and ship emissions at Lianyungang

Port. The method used is quantitative and concerns the

Estimation of air pollutant emissions from vessels. The

main conclusions reached by the research are that after

the lifting of COVID-19 regulations, the average

normal sailing time per vessel increased from 12.23 to

20.05 hours, an increase of 63.94%, while the average

operating time per vessel during slow cruising,

maneuvering and hotel decreased. Meanwhile, the

total air pollutant emissions from vessels have

increased by >60%. Relevant departments should pay

more attention to NOx and develop feasible policies to

reduce emissions.

[42] examine changes in NO2 pollution over

shipping lanes, ports and coasts worldwide during

Lockdown (LD). The method used is quantitative and

concerns Changes in NO2 during LD over the ports

and coasts. Once the LD restriction was lifted,

emissions in shipping lanes and ports returned to the

same levels as before the LD. This indicates that

relevant policies are needed to limit emissions of

hazardous air pollutants from shipping. The study can

be considered as a reference for creating a better

shipping emission inventory, satellite algorithms for

detecting narrow shipping lanes and monitoring small

ports, and policy recommendations for reducing NOx

emissions from ships.

318

[43] provide a dataset of indoor ship CO2 to infer

the risk assessment of thermal comfort, ventilation and

infectious disease transmission. Indoor air quality

(IAQ) monitoring was conducted in nine environments

(three cabins, buffet, gym, bar, restaurant, pub and

theatre) on a cruise ship sailing throughout the UK and

EU, with the study being carried out as part of the EU

HEALTHY SAILING program. CO2 concentrations,

temperature and relative humidity (RH) were

monitored simultaneously to investigate the thermal

characteristics and the effectiveness of ventilation

performance. The method followed was quantitative

for Estimation of air change rates (ACH) and

ventilation rates (VR) and Infectious risk evaluation.

The specific objectives of the study are: (i) to assess

ventilation conditions on a sailing cruise ship, (ii) to

identify the potential role of ventilation-related

measures in reducing the risk of airborne virus

transmission, (iii) to investigate the energy saving

potential, based on IAQ and the resulting infectious

risk potential, and (iv) to provide a real-world IAQ

data set.

[44] develops a fast numerical method for the

examination of the drainage capacity of the garage

deck of a ropax vessel. They consider a passive

drainage system, i.e. comprising only scuppers,

whereas the investigated flooding scenario depends on

firefighting operations, the so-called FloodW which

combines ship dynamics in waves together with

floodwater dynamics. The method they apply is

quantitative. In this research study, the FloodW code is

further developed to evaluate the flow rate of the

drainage system, taking into account the instantaneous

water quantities in all the wells depending on the ship

and the floodwater dynamics. The comparative

analysis of the application results between the two

investigated drilling configurations gives new

information on the effectiveness of the drilling system

at sea and thus leads to possible improvements of the

guidelines for its design and layout, on board the ship.

[45] use a field model (also known as a CFD model

– Computational Fluid Dynamics) to model fire spread.

This model divides the space into smaller sub-domains

in order to accurately calculate the heat and smoke

flow. The research uses a quantitative methodology,

with main features CFD Simulations, Experimental

Scenarios and finally Verification with real data. The

study describes strategies for fire risk reduction,

focusing mainly on passenger ships. It also develops a

risk assessment framework for fire casualties at sea,

identifying critical variables that affect the occurrence

of casualties. In this way, the research contributes to a

better understanding of risk factors and to supporting

new approaches for the prevention and management

of fires on ships.

[46] conducted a real-world navigation experiment,

during which physical and psychological data were

collected from seafarers using an eye-tracking system

and the Subjective Workload Assessment Technique

(SWAT) scale. A univariate polynomial fitting method

was proposed to establish the correlation model

between workload and safety performance, as well as

between workload and the distraction index. The

research uses a quantitative methodology, as it is based

on the collection and analysis of numerical data (e.g.

physiological index measurements, SWAT

questionnaires, statistical analysis) to study the

relationship between workload and safety

performance of seafarers. The use of statistical models

(e.g. polynomial regression) and experimental data

confirm this approach. This study contributes to the

investigation of the relationship between seafarers'

safety performance and workload, as well as the

workload interval during real voyages, in order to

improve the allocation of crew resources and maintain

good safety performance, with the aim of reducing

maritime accidents and enhancing resilience to risks. It

promotes the proper allocation of seafarers' work and

fills the gap in the implementation of safety and

resilient shipping management. Finally, it offers

guiding significance and dissemination value for

monitoring the health status of seafarers and

guaranteeing the safety of ship navigation.

The research studies of [47] and [48] discuss

maritime accidents by assessing the severity level of

passenger vessels. However, we will not proceed to a

full analysis, because they do not constitute distinct

accidents nor is a distinct action identified to avoid

accidents. Nevertheless, we consider it important to

briefly refer to these two cases as both the causal factors

of maritime accidents and the understanding and

assessment of risks related to Maritime safety

constitute an important and integral part of the

management of maritime crises. Therefore, both could

not be absent from an SLR on maritime accidents-

caused crises management. The first one proposes a

new approach to the analysis of accident reports. The

aim of the article is to find patterns and trends based

on a systemic theory of accident causation. The

approach focuses on identifying dominant systemic

causal factors. The article finds that interactions

between the master and the bridge crew, between the

bridge crew and the navigation equipment, and

between the ship management company and the ship

are most frequently identified in accident reports. The

second one identifies different conditions within the

Risk Influencing Factors (RIF) that can lead to

passenger ship accidents with an extremely high level

of severity. Particularly for passenger ships and to

enhance maritime safety, it is essential to implement

preventive and mitigating measures to address the

damage. As demonstrated, improvements in

equipment reliability, human performance and

effective shipping management can significantly

reduce the likelihood of serious accidents.

4 DISCUSSION

The final section of the article reflects step 6 of the SLR

methodology – the report phase – in which the main

findings are interpreted contextualized and reported.

From the processing of the results, it follows that

[33] aim to optimize the HEPS process at an early stage,

that of risk management. This is consistent with the

crisis management model of [49] as well as that of [50].

According to [49], the crisis consists of 4 stages in its

life cycle. The second stage concerns the search for and

reduction of risk factors. An evolution of this model is

the model of [50]. This model consists of three stages:

the pre-crisis stage, the stage when the crisis is an

existing event (crisis event) and the post-crisis stage.

The deliverable of [33] belongs to the Precrisis stage.

This is the incubation period of crises where a series of

319

warning signals appear before the crisis becomes an

existing event. Management activities are oriented

towards actions implemented to reduce known risks

that could lead to a crisis. This perspective of [33] is in

full agreement with the position of many authors that

risk management is an integral part of crisis

management. This follows from the fact that if one or

more risks are not managed appropriately, then they

will partially or completely turn into a crisis [51], [52].

In the model of [34] a deliverable emerges which

can be applied again in the Precrisis stage of [50]. This

time, however, it concerns the actions within the Crisis

Preparation stage. In this way the emergency

managers, as [50] calls them, should be prepared for

the occurrence of the crisis. The model of [34] is directly

related to time management as it is presented. The

preparation actions include the development and

updating of the crisis management plan. This is

directly related to time management as it is presented

in the model of [34]. Other actions of Coombs' model in

the precrisis stage, such as selecting and training the

management team by conducting exercises to control

the plan and the crisis management team, identifying

vulnerabilities and structuring communications, are

related to the optimal exploitation of the resources

used for crisis management, as presented in the model

of [34].

In the paper of [35], there is an identification with

the "Crisis Event" phase from the Coombs’ crisis

management model [50]. In this phase, emergency

managers should run procedures during the crisis,

until it is "resolved". As the crisis evolves, managers

should respond quickly, accurately and consistently.

This stage concerns knowledge of the crisis and

response to the crisis. The actions in this stage are Crisis

Acknowledgement and Crisis response: EMs should

follow procedures or management plans to minimize

or mitigate the consequences and side effects of the

crisis. The article "Performance-based fire and

evacuation analysis for real-time response to shipboard

fire incidents" clearly focuses on the active crisis phase,

i.e. the time when the fire is in progress and an

immediate response by the crew is required, with the

aim of proper evacuation, fire control, victim reduction

and real-time decision-making based on simulations.

The system developed in the article is a tool for

operational response during a crisis (real-time risk

level analysis, ASET/RSET comparison, etc.).

[36] provide a deliverable that provides real-time

information on the ship’s position and movement

characteristics. Therefore, through this continuous

monitoring, this tool is applicable both in the precrisis

stage and in the crisis, event based on the Coombs

model [50]. Regarding the precrisis stage, it can be

applied to the action (of this stage) called Signal

Detection. With this action, emergency managers

(EMs) should detect warning signs, collect information

about them and analyze this information. The

deliverable of [36] implements exactly this action - in

real time - everything that has to do with the ship’s

position and movement in order to manage the risk of

a contact or collision. Regarding the crisis event stage

of the Coombs model [50], in the Crisis response action,

depending on the type of crisis, EMs should follow

procedures or management plans to minimize or

mitigate the consequences and side effects of the crisis.

Therefore, in the case where the ship has already

entered a “difficult position” that endangers its safety,

the [36] model can mitigate or minimize the

consequences of this event.

The application of the study by [37] to safety benefit

assessments could provide evidence for the

improvement of the MTSA system as well as contribute

to an appropriate modification of the regulatory

framework. The connection with the crisis

management model of Coombs [50] is seen in the

precrisis stage and more specifically in the Crisis

Prevention actions where EMs should avoid the risks

of signals that they have already detected and could

lead to a crisis or at least reduce the level of risk of the

crisis occurring. More specifically, the expansion of the

scope of the system (MTSA) is a prevention action, in

order to reduce the rate of accidents associated with

this system.

The main contribution of the deliverable of [38] is

found in the advances achieved through the answer to

five distinct research questions. These answers are

fully aligned with the position of many scholars that

risk management is an integral element of crisis

management. This is substantiated by the fact that, if

one or more risks are not addressed appropriately, then

they may partially or fully develop into a crisis [51],

[52]. Through a continuous monitoring process, the

ferry responds effectively both in the precrisis stage

and during the crisis event, according to the Coombs

model [50]. In the precrisis stage, the ferry implements

the action called Signal Detection, during which crisis

managers (EM) are called upon to identify warning

signs, collect relevant information and analyze it. As

for the crisis event stage, the ferry corresponds to the

Crisis Response action, where, depending on the type

of crisis, EMs must implement appropriate procedures

or management plans to minimize or mitigate the

impacts and collateral consequences of the crisis.

The research work of [39] will improve the

management of data protection in the maritime

industry, both at the operations and valuation levels,

with the prospect of being applied in the future in real

operating conditions. This research work contributes

both to the precrisis model of Coombs [50] which

concerns risk management and to the crisis event stage

and especially to the Crisis Response action (as already

analyzed in previous paragraphs).

The research work of [40] contributes substantially

to both the main stages of the crisis management model

of Coombs [49]: both the precrisis stage and the crisis

event stage. More specifically, it strengthens the

prevention and preparation phase (precrisis), through

the integration of mechanisms for early detection of

danger signals, threat assessment and continuous

monitoring, as these have been analyzed in previous

paragraphs. At the same time, it also offers a significant

contribution to the management phase of the crisis

event itself (crisis event), and especially to the Crisis

Response action, supporting the implementation of

structured procedures and measures for immediate

reaction, limiting the impacts and preventing collateral

consequences. The application of the approach to a real

scenario, such as the autonomous ferry milliAmpere2,

makes the study's proposals particularly applicable

and realistic in the context of maritime cybersecurity.

[41] use data from the Automatic Identification

System (AIS) adopting a “bottom-up” approach to

320

investigate whether the lifting of preventive

regulations imposed by ports during the COVID-19

pandemic affects shipping activity and pollutant

emissions at Lianyungang Port. Their study focuses on

identifying the consequences that may arise from the

relaxation of restrictive measures, highlighting the

need for continuous monitoring and preventive action.

The connection with the crisis management model of

Coombs [50] is found in the precrisis stage, and in

particular in the Crisis Prevention phase, during which

crisis managers (Emergency Managers) are called upon

not only to identify warning signs (signals), but also to

prevent their development into a crisis. The study by

[41] offers a typical example of the importance of this

phase: it shows how the lack of prevention or the

premature lifting of preventive measures can

negatively affect critical indicators, such as

environmental burden and the smoothness of port

activity. Therefore, the contribution of this research

strengthens the understanding of how timely and

documented measures taken in the precrisis stage can

prevent the escalation of a risk into a full-blown crisis.

The study by [42] focuses on changes in

atmospheric nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) pollution over

shipping lanes, ports and coastal areas on a global

scale, during the period of lockdowns due to COVID-

19. Through satellite data and analysis of shipping

activity, the researchers record significant reductions

in emissions, highlighting the direct relationship

between human activity, shipping and environmental

impacts. The contribution of the study can be

interpreted in the light of Coombs’ crisis management

model [50], and more specifically in the precrisis stage,

in which the Crisis Prevention action is included. At

this stage, emergency managers are called upon to use

the already available danger signals, in this case, air

pollution levels, to prevent the occurrence of an

environmental crisis or at least reduce its likelihood.

The reduction in emissions during the lockdown acts

as “experimental proof” of the positive effect of

restrictive measures on pollution, providing crucial

data that can be used preventively in the future.

Therefore, this research highlights the importance of

active prevention in managing environmental risks

before they develop into full-scale crises.

The study by [43] presents a specialized dataset on

carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels in ship interiors, which is

used to assess risks related to thermal comfort,

ventilation and the transmission of infectious diseases.

This data offers important information on the

atmospheric conditions inside maritime spaces,

allowing the early identification of parameters that

could affect the health and safety of crew and

passengers. The connection with the crisis

management model of Coombs [50] is located in the

precrisis stage, and more specifically in the Crisis

Prevention phase. In this context, the recording and

analysis of CO₂ data constitutes an early intervention

tool, allowing the prevention of potential crises related

either to adverse living conditions or to the spread of

airborne diseases. Therefore, this specific study

enhances the prevention of risks in the internal

environment of ships, contributing to the management

of crises before they occur.

The study by [44] focuses on upgrading the FloodW

tool for estimating drainage flow on ships, taking into

account the quantities of water in the wells and the

dynamics of flooding. By comparing two drilling

configurations, useful conclusions are drawn for

improving the design of the system on board the ship.

The contribution of this study is directly linked to the

crisis event stage of the Coombs crisis management

model [50], and in particular to the Crisis Response

action. At this stage, crisis managers are called upon to

implement intervention plans and procedures in order

to limit the consequences of the crisis and mitigate the

collateral effects. The development and

implementation of FloodW contributes precisely to this

direction, as it allows for the immediate assessment

and adaptation of the response in cases of a flood crisis

on board the ship. It thus provides a critical decision

support tool for the effective management of such

emergencies.

[45] use a field model (CFD - Computational Fluid

Dynamics) to simulate the spread of fire on ships in

detail. This research can be functionally integrated into

two stages of the crisis management model of Coombs

[50]: the precrisis stage and the crisis event stage. As

regards the first stage, its contribution is found in the

Signal Detection action, where crisis managers

(Emergency Managers) are called upon to identify

early indications of a possible fire, collect relevant data

and analyze them in order to prevent its development.

The accuracy and predictive power of the CFD model

make this early risk diagnosis possible. Regarding the

crisis event stage, the research contribution focuses on

the Crisis Response action, offering tools that support

immediate decision-making and the implementation of

appropriate response plans, aiming to reduce the

impact of a fire and limit collateral consequences. Thus,

the proposed modeling enhances both the prevention

and response to crises on board.

[46] conduct an experiment in real-world

navigation conditions, in which physiological and

psychological data of seafarers are recorded using an

eye-tracking system and the Subjective Workload

Assessment Technique (SWAT). The study focuses on

understanding the cognitive and psychological

workload of seafarers during navigation, contributing

to the identification of factors that may affect

performance and safety. The contribution of this

research can be interpreted in the context of Coombs’

crisis management model [50], as it is related to both

the precrisis stage and the crisis event stage. In the first,

and in particular in the Signal Detection phase, data

from eye-tracking and workload assessment offer crisis

managers (EM) the opportunity to identify early signs

of mental fatigue or reduced perception, which may be

a harbinger of critical situations. By analyzing these

indicators, preventive measures can be taken before

situations develop into crises. At the crisis event stage,

and in particular in the Crisis Response action, the

study findings support the formulation of targeted

intervention strategies. By understanding how

seafarers react under pressure, EMs can design more

effective response protocols, minimizing negative

consequences and ensuring optimal human factor

performance at critical moments.

5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

This paper systematically analyzed the operations of

passenger ships during accidents and unforeseen

321

events, applying the PSALSAR methodology. The

review of the relevant literature highlighted the

increasing importance of prevention and technology-

supported crisis management, especially in the post-

COVID maritime environment. The main findings of

this study demonstrate a substantial shift in the

approach to crisis management in the passenger

shipping sector: from the traditional, passive reaction

after the event, to a proactive, systematic and

technologically supported framework of prediction

and preparation. The use of advanced technologies,

such as artificial intelligence (AI), ship traffic

forecasting systems, intelligent real-time monitoring

systems and risk analysis algorithms, contributes

decisively to this transition. At the same time, the

application of tools such as the Mass Rescue Operation

(MRO) model, real-time Fire Risk Assessment and

Predictive Behavioral Models enhances the operational

readiness of crews and decision support systems.

However, technological development alone is not

enough. The study clearly highlights that the human

dimension of the crisis remains a critical factor in

successful management. Systematic training and

retraining of crew, the development of a safety culture

within the organization, the existence of clear

hierarchies and effective communication in both

normal and emergency conditions are fundamental

components of resilience. In addition, the integration of

psychological support and understanding of the

human factor, as reflected in studies using workload

indicators and eye-tracking, further strengthens the

ability to prevent and respond. Overall, the future of

crisis management in passenger shipping is shaped

through a combined approach of technological and

human empowerment, where a preventive culture,

continuous innovation and interoperability between

people and technology play a central role in enhancing

maritime resilience.

Based on the findings of the study, the following

recommendations emerge:

− Development of integrated real-time prediction and

response tools, such as navigation and risk

assessment models, adapted to the specificities of

each ship and route.

− Establishment of crisis scenarios through training

simulations, using advanced technologies such as

virtual and augmented reality, enhancing

operational readiness.Integrating cybersecurity as a

critical pillar of passenger ship operations, by

implementing security plans and continuous threat

assessments.

− Use of data tools (e.g. GIS, AIS) to detect trends,

assess environmental impacts and support

informed decisions.

− Development of adaptable crisis management

plans, which will take into account the geographical

area, the institutional framework and the specific

characteristics of the ship and the crew.

− Further research into under-covered topics such as

crowd incidents, cyber threats and legal issues

during crises.

The study contributes substantially to the

theoretical understanding and practical application of

new crisis management models in passenger shipping,

enhancing the design of more resilient and secure

shipping operations.

6 LIMITATIONS

As with any systematic review, this study is

accompanied by certain methodological limitations,

which do not reduce its scientific validity, but

contribute to a clear definition of the scope and

interpretation of the findings. More specifically, the

analysis focused on the period 2023-2025, aiming to

capture the most recent developments in the passenger

shipping sector. This choice enhances the usability and

timeliness of the conclusions, although older,

theoretically fundamental works may not be included.

However, this temporal focus allows for a sharp

capture of current trends and challenges.

Furthermore, the research was based exclusively on

publications included in the Scopus database, which

ensures high standards of scientific quality and

reliability. Despite the possible exclusion of grey

literature or other databases, this choice lends

coherence and methodological consistency to the

corpus of studies.

It is also noteworthy that the majority of the selected

works follow technological or quantitative approaches.

Although this allows for the extraction of measurable

and objective conclusions, the possibility of further

enriching the picture with qualitative data that better

capture the social and organizational dimensions of

crisis management is recognized. This fact, however,

also highlights a fertile research area for future studies.

Finally, the analysis was based on secondary data,

which is a common feature of systematic reviews.

Although the integration of primary material, such as

interviews or field observations, could further enrich

the understanding of the phenomenon, the present

study lays a solid foundation for further exploration of

these dimensions.

Overall, the above factors do not limit the validity

of the conclusions, but enhance the clarity of the

context in which they are applied. At the same time,

they indicate important directions for future research,

such as the integration of qualitative analysis, the

collection of primary material and the expansion of the

temporal and geographical scope of study. This

systematic approach contributes substantially to the

understanding of current challenges in maritime crisis

management, constituting a useful tool for both the

scientific community and the sector stakeholders.

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