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1 INTRODUCTION

In much of the world, women are in the least valued

jobs, both professionally and economically, due to the

unavailability of education, training and recruitment

aimed at the female workforce. Women do not receive

equal pay for their jobs and are more likely to suffer

both domestic violence and violence at work. For all

these reasons, the World Women's Day Conference

held in Beijing in 2015 highlighted all these problems

suffered by women, and established an agenda to

promote equality between women and men and the

empowerment of women.

It is undeniable that the maritime industry, and

specifically work on board, is a sector historically

dominated by men. This is confirmed by the data from

the Women in Maritime Survey [1]and the BIMCO/ICS

2021 Seafarer Workforce [2] by establishing that,

currently, and for more than 20 years, less than 2% of

the people who work on board are women.

The IMO has been making a great effort to

incorporate women in the sector since it launched the

“IMO women in development programme” in 1996 [3].

Today the IMO maintains a gender program that,

under the three lines of action Training–Visibility–

Recognition, represents a strategic approach to

Occupational Stress and Fatigue at Sea: A Gender

Perspective of Spanish Seafarers

M.N. López López & R.M. Campa Portela

University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain

ABSTRACT: With less than 2% of women seafarers, it is undeniable that the maritime industry, and specifically

work on board, is a sector historically dominated by men. Ships are hard workplaces where stress and fatigue are

commonly present. Psychosocial risk factors related to the performance of tasks, work organization, and

interpersonal relationships could trigger health problems related to stress, such as depression, anxiety, burnout

and even suicide. Despite gender differences in the risk of suffering from occupational diseases and accidents in

relation to work stress are widely documented internationally in several sectors, research exploring the

correlation between gender and stress in the maritime field is scarce. This paper focuses on the perception of

stress and fatigue of Spanish women working at sea, making a comparison with their male colleagues. For this

purpose, a survey on stress and fatigue is distributed to seafarers, from which 236 valid responses are obtained,

these are analyzed and cross-checked using the SPSS data analysis program. The results show that there is a clear

difference between genders in the perception of stress, since 37.04% of women and 23.33% of men refer to a high

level of stress in the last campaign on board. In the case of fatigue, the difference is greater, with 44% of women

versus 21.05% of men reporting a high level of fatigue during the last period on board. The percentages of

reported stress symptoms also show important differences: 41.92% of women very often experience “tendency to

eat, drink or smoke more than usual”, compared to 22.65% of men who experience this symptom; 30.91% of

women also suffer from migraines or headaches, while only 8.29% of men report experiencing them.

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 20

Number 2

June 2026

DOI: 10.12716/1001.20.02.05

292

increase the contribution of women as key participants

in the maritime sector, in their commitment to helping

the Members States to meet the UN's 2030 Agenda for

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly

Goal 5 "Achieve gender equality and empower all

women and girls."

However, and despite growing awareness of

gender equality in the maritime sector, where male

representation is extremely high, gender equality is

often considered a women's issue. Data collected from

Kitada et al. [4] indicates a lack of understanding of the

technical and social links in maritime matters, as well

as a lack of gender awareness, which contributes to

hegemonic and complicit masculinities. This article

argues how resistance to change may be related to the

power and privileges of men backed by hegemonic,

complicit, and industrial masculine values, while

ecological masculinities are observable in the new

initiative called “Just Maritime Transition”.

On the other handk, Romero [19] examines the

implementation and evolution of institutional policies

on gender equality and women’s empowerment at the

World Maritime University (WMU. Through a

longitudinal analysis of enrollment and employment

statistics, as well as institutional documents and

academic publications covering the period 1983–2017,

the findings reveal steady progress in integrating a

gender perspective into the university’s academic and

administrative activities.

Also the ILO is playing an important role in helping

women and men to equalise their social and labour

protection, to be able to take care of their family

members, to be able to fulfil their work obligations and

to end occupational segregation [5]. Despite a 45.8%

increase in women working as seafarers in 2021

compared to the 2015 BIMCO (Baltic and International

Maritime Council) report, it is still a long way from

matching the male gender engagement [2].

Furthermore, the ship is a confined, mobile and

floating workplace that is also living quarters for the

crew. The short turnaround, the reduction of crews, the

increase of multicultural and multilingual crews, the

rigid work hierarchy, labor mobility and isolation, are

common characteristics of work on board, and have, in

general, a negative impact on social life on board. This

circumstance, added to the fact that women are a

minority in this sector, makes it particularly difficult

for them to find work and makes these women more

exposed to facing and suffering situations of workplace

discrimination, bullying and sexual harassment [6] [7]

[8]. The presence of these psychosocial risk factors

related to the performance of tasks, work organization,

and interpersonal relationships could trigger health

problems related to stress, such as depression, anxiety,

burnout and even suicide. Also, it is documented that

high levels of stress can cause accidents of varying

severity, including death [9] [10].

Gender differences in the risk of suffering from

occupational diseases and accidents in relation to work

stress are also widely documented internationally in

several working sector [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]

[16]however research exploring the correlation

between gender and stress in the maritime field is

scarce [17].

The difficulties in finding employment on board,

the obstacles to promotion, the inequality in work

demands, the difficulties in conciliation, the

probability of suffering discrimination, bullying and

harassment as well as the lack of support inside and

outside the ship when facing these situations are

considered not only as the main causes of early

withdrawal from the profession but also as the causes

of the lack of maritime vocations [8]. Although

improvements have been made over the years, it is still

necessary to establish measures for the employability

of women in the maritime sector, so that women in this

field have the same possibilities as their male

colleagues [18]. Therefore, it is important to invest in

training and that shipping companies should prioritise

the establishment of clear policies to fight

discrimination and workplace and sexual harassment.

Also institutions should provide the necessary

regulations to punish these situations in a forceful

manner, and so that equal opportunities to gain access

to the labour market become a reality [8].

The purpose of this article, based on the results of a

survey in which 236 spanish seafarers participated, is

to explore how harsh working conditions on board can

be perceived differently as a source of fatigue and

stress by men and women. These differences in the

perception of fatigue and stress are reflected in the

reporting of different levels of health consequences by

both genders. The survey process and the results

obtained are detailed below.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

For the purposes of this study, a 34 question survey is

designed, validated and distributed. Almost all the

questions in this survey are closed-ended, allowing the

survey participants to select, from a series of

(previously assigned) categories, the response that best

fits or approximates their experience [20]. The 34

questions are distributed as follows: 14 are related to

identification, 10 are related to the perception of stress

and the other 10 are related with fatigue. The

questionnaires were distributed between December

2017 and April 2018, both in English and Spanish, and

a total of 236 valid responses were obtained, allowing

us to affirm that the sample is representative. For the

study and comparison of the different variables, the

statistical analysis program SPSS and the spreadsheet

EXCEL were used.

Personal identification data are collected on

respondents, such as age, sex, whether they are

married or living as a couple, supporting dependents

and nationality. The purpose of collecting these data is

to obtain a profile of the sample to help us understand

the perceptions and experiences of individuals who

have common personal characteristics and/or

circumstances.

The aim of the questions on work situation is to

prove if there are substantial differences between the

perceptions of individuals with different work

situations within the same maritime environment, i.e.,

to establish whether work characteristics are

determining factors in experiencing stress or fatigue at

work. Given that the objective of this article is to give a

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gender perspective, the data on sex was included in the

identification of the participants [21].

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Personal data

The vast majority of respondents are male (76.69%

compared to 23.31% female) (n=236). Although more

women have been attracted to seafaring in the last

decade, the number of female seafaring workers is still

far lower than the thousands of male officers.

According to the 2021 BIMCO report the percentage of

STCW certified female ratings is estimated to be 1.28%

of the global seafarer workforce and there appears to

have been a significant increase in the number of STCW

certified female ratings and female ratings mainly in

the cruise and passenger ferry sectors. The number of

female officers is more evenly distributed across

sectors [2].

Given the low presence of women at sea, in early

2020 the ITF and IMO came together and committed to

boosting the presence of women in the maritime

community by offering training opportunities,

scholarships for postgraduate studies, more

management positions and a greater number of jobs at

sea.

On the other hand, leadership style and teamwork

or organisational culture were considered as

occupational risk factors related to discrimination and

harassment of women [22].

According to the survey conducted and as shown in

Figure 1, there is a great difference between the age of

the crew members in terms of gender, women are

concentrated between the ages of 31 and 40, while men

are more evenly distributed across all age ranges. This

could be related to the fact of being mothers and the

consequent abandonment of their profession, since

women's career paths are not as easy as men's in any

work culture [23]. Although men have the same family

responsibilities and the same number of children, this

situation often does not affect their career progression,

in fact a study by Ojwala et al. [23]shows that 80% of

men never take parental leave. One of the reasons is

that it is still ingrained in the culture that women play

the primary role in care work, such as childcare,

pregnancy and childbirth seem to be some of the

challenges women face throughout their careers,

concluding that women are not only the lowest paid

but also occupy the least protected positions at sea [24].

Figure 1. Age

As shown in Figure 2, 76.10% of male respondents

and 67.39% of female respondents are married or living

in a couple.

The complexity of the family and social life of

seafarers has been studied previously. According to

Frosyth and Bankston [25] the seafarer becomes a

visitor in his own family. The restrictions on personal

relationships, the well-defined hierarchical structure

on board and the cyclical social isolation inherent in the

seafarers' life cause them to be far away from most

shore-based workers. A sense of isolation develops not

only between seafarers and their families, but also

between seafarers and their friends, and between

seafarers and society at large. In fact, it was found that

seafarers' lifestyle is mainly characterized by

marginality, which leads them to express a sense of

helplessness and abnormal loneliness from society and

culture [26].

Figure 2. Married or living with a partner

The seafarer's job is developed at sea and

consequently the seafarer's family must function

within the context of separation, actual or potential,

throughout his professional life [27]. Forsyth [28] says

that the longer the seafarer has been at sea, the less

integrated he is with his family.

Figure 3 shows that 58.49% of the males and 52.17%

of the females have dependents (they may be children

or other dependents).

Figure 3. Dependents

Regarding the time spent on board, again a notable

difference is observed, as show in Figure 4, 47.83% of

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women have less tan 5 years of experience, and 47.80%

of men have an onboard experience of more than 10

years.

Figure 4. Time worked on board

3.2 The workload

The study by Fernández et al. [29] analyses the

workload of a sample of 8892 workers looking for the

difference in workload exposure between women and

men. Analysis of the survey shows that men report a

lower mental workload than women in relation to the

pace of work, as the prevalence of "High pace of work"

was 0.65% in women compared to 0.63% in men. Men

reported a lower mental workload due to "overwork"

than women. Women more often than men are

fatigued by overwork (0.37%, 0.35% respectively). The

results of this survey do not corroborate the authors'

initial hypothesis that women are exposed to a greater

mental workload than men, although by analysing

different components of mental workload, women are

exposed to a greater pace of work and greater fatigue

as a consequence of the amount of work [29]. In the

research carried out for this article, as shown in Figure

5, both men (74.03%) and women (76.36%) consider

that they have been assigned a high workload in the

last period at sea, with no significant differences

between the two sexes on this point.

Figure 5. Gender and workload

3.3 Command on board

Men represent 98% of seafarers at the international

level (all positions). Of these, 42% occupy command

positions. Since the majority of the survey participants

in this article are Spanish, a comparison by gender of

the positions held by these participants will give us an

idea of the distribution of Spanish men and women in

command positions.

Therefore, it is considered necessary to look at the

positions held on board by both men and women at an

international level. In 2013 [30] of the 2% of women

working in the maritime sector internationally, only 7%

held command positions, however in the data collected

by BIMCO in 2021 the estimated global supply of

STCW certified women is 24,059, of which

approximately 7,289 are officers and 16,770 are

seafarers. This is an increase of 45.8% since the 2015

report, although there remains an imbalance in

women's access to these positions.

As shown in Figure 6, 36.95% of the women were

second and third deck officers and 25.15% of the men

were captains.

It is evident that women occupy lower ranking

positions than men, probably due to the fact that they

sail less time, their professional life is less long-lasting.

This is why the work of the Women in Shipping and

Trade International Association (WISTA

International), an international network organization

whose mission is to attract and support women at

management levels in the maritime, trade and logistics

sectors, is so important. This partnership falls within

the framework of the IMO Strategic Plan that

contributes to promoting diversity, inclusion and

empowerment of women [31].

Figure 6. Gender and command on board

3.4 Type of navigation

Male respondents are more involved in high seas

navigation than female ones who sail on coastal

navigation. For future research, it would be

worthwhile to study in depth the reason for this

(whether it is personal preference or a decision of the

contracting company).

Figure 7 shows that men have done a higher

percentage (37.02%) of deep-sea sailing, while women

have done 40% of domestic coastal sailing.

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Figure 7. Gender and type of navigation

3.5 Stress

Stress has numerous definitions but this paper will

focus on the one defined by Selye [32] as the adaptive

response of the organism to various stressors.

Among the many causes that can cause stress, this

study highlight those that are commonly present in

work on board sucha as hierarchy, nutrition, rest and

shift works, work-family balance, job satisfaction and

intimidation and harassment. This last point is

especially important given the low representation of

women, who may feel intimidated or even mistreated

on board [30].

Reference is made here to the study by Jordão and

Ramos [33] which shows that when gender and stress

are related, the differences are more reflected in the

elements that cause stress and the coping mechanisms.

In the case of the perception of occupational stress, the

results obtained in this study reflect that rather than

differences between men and women in terms of the

experience of stress, the gender differences focus on the

causes of stress and the forms of response to this

experience, confirming the results obtained by authors

such as Martocchio and O'Leary [34] and Makhbul and

Hasun [35].

Given the paucity of previous studies in the field of

gender and occupational stress, work on this issue has

found that gender differences are limited to the fact

that for men the elements causing occupational stress

are, “lack of control over working conditions”,

“achievement and career development possibilities”,

while for women it is, “the high position in the

hierarchical structure” and “the relationship between

domestic and work responsibilities” [31] [36] [37] [38]

[39].

Gu et al [40] in their study of 294 Chinese seafarers

indicate that appropriate group activities on the ship

are important in alleviating fatigue and stress and thus

reducing the desire to change jobs.

Within the stress experienced on board, several

topics to be taken into account are studied, such as the

perceived level and symptoms of stress. In this regard,

Baumler and Carrera-Arce [41] develop a matrix of risk

factors for maritime suicide, organized into five parts

(i.e., the experience of being at sea, the distinctive

nature of maritime society, health systems, community

dynamics on board, and the impact of close and distant

relationships) to guide the analysis on stress

experienced on board. This tool allows for a systematic

exploration of the complex interaction between

seafarers and their natural and social environments.

Figure 8 shows that 46.11% of men report a low

level of stress while 44.45% of women consider that the

level of stress they suffer is high.

Figure 8. Gender and stress level

Stress has a series of effects on the physical and

mental state of those who suffer from it, and in the

maritime field it can trigger, in extreme cases, the

consumption of drugs and alcohol, and even suicide.

The sympotoms of stress most commonly reported

by the survey participants were the following ones:

Tendency to eat, drink or smoke more than usual:

This is the most frequently reported stress symptom.

Figure 9 shows that this tendency occurs "very often"

for 22.65% of men and for 41.82% of women.

Figure 9. Gender and tendency to eat, drink or smoke more

than usual

Migraines and headaches: Figure 10 shows that

25.97% of men almost never report suffering from

"migraines and headaches", while 30.91% of women

participants report suffering from these symptoms

very often.

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Figure 10. Gender and migraines and headaches

Inability to fall asleep: Figure 11 shows that both

men (28.18%) and women (30.91%) report sometimes

suffering from this symptom.

Figure 11. Gender and inability to fall asleep

Feeling of extreme tiredness or exhaustion: Figure

12 shows that both men (29.28%) and women (36.36%)

reported that they sometimes suffer from "feeling

extremely tired or exhausted". It should be noted that

55.25% of men and 74.54% of women have experienced

this symptom from sometimes to regularly.

Figure 12. Gender and feeling extremely tired or exhausted

3.6 Fatigue

Fatigue alone is not considered an occupational disease

in Spanish legislation [42]. Work fatigue is a

consequence of excessive activity and monotonous

work, and can be alleviated with reasonable schedules,

adequate rest periods and sufficient time for sleep,

recreation and food. Fatigue, therefore, is presented as

a decreasing aptitude to perform a job. Long periods of

work are inevitably associated with fatigue; in these

cases, the sensation of fatigue acts as a protective

device of the organism, which serves to prevent total

exhaustion.

The factors that lead to fatigue on board are

personal conditions, for this reason personal data are

analyzed in the survey of this study, socioeconomic

conditions and work *organization, for which the

workload on board is of interest. In addition, the hours

of sleep and leisure are considered crucial, and

whether these are considered sufficient.

As is the case with stress, within fatigue it is worth

highlighting data such as perceived level, rest hours,

hours available for sleep, time available for leisure, and

the consequences of fatigue.

Figure 13 shows that 23.39% of men report a low

level of fatigue while 44% of women consider that the

level of fatigue expirence in the last trip is high.

Figure 13. Gender and level of fatigue

The reference standard is the ILO Convention on

hours of work and rest and on the other hand the

STCW Convention on minimum crew depending on

the tonnage of the vessel.

The Convention on work regarding working hours

indicates that these shall not exceed 14 hours for every

24 hours, nor 72 hours for every 7 working days, on the

other hand, the number of hours of rest shall not be less

than 10 hours for every 24 hours nor 77 hours for every

7 days, it includes that the safety drills proposed on the

ship and of mandatory compliance, shall be made so as

not to disturb as far as possible the hours of rest of the

crew and thus not to cause fatigue of the same [43].

Men and women are different in many ways, and

the way they sleep is one of them, being a basic

physiological need. Men need less sleep than women,

women need on average 20 minutes more rest than

men and this is because women have a multitasking

brain, so the more the brain is used during the day, the

more it needs to recover and, consequently, the more

hours it needs to recover. Women suffer more health

problems from sleep deprivation than men, and sleep

deprivation in women is strongly associated with high

levels of psychological stress and increased feelings of

hostility, anxiety, depression and anger; feelings that

were not associated to the same degree with sleep

disruption in men [44].

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More than 20% of the population is affected by

Major Depressive Episode (MDE), causing impairment

in the performance of important life tasks [45] [46] [47]

[48].

Sleep is the central symptom of MDE, and

according to Kuehner in 2003, women at the age of 65

are at greater risk of suffering from MDE than men [49].

In a 2022 study analysing the sleep of 205 Croatian

male seafarers, 39% of the participants had sleep-

related problems on board. The seafarers reported

short, frequently interrupted sleep periods, night-time

awakenings, daytime sleepiness, difficulties in

concentration and a weak sleep schedule. This led to

slower reaction times, impaired reasoning and poor

mood stability. The result is physical problems such as

constant fatigue, migraines and inability to sleep,

where in many cases seafarers try to alleviate these

ailments with medication and excessive coffee

consumption [50].

Both men and women have 6 hours or more

available to sleep. Figure 14 shows that 38.89% of the

female respondents have 6 hours to sleep, and on the

other hand, 33.33% of the male respondents recognize

that they have 8 hours available to rest.

Figure 14. Consecutive hours available for sleeping

Asking if they consider the time they have to sleep

as sufficient, in Figure 15, both 43.59% of men and

37.59% of women consider that the time available for

sleeping is not enough.

Figure 15. The time I have available for sleeping is sufficient

According to the responses of this survey, Figure 16

shows, 22.86% of women have 2 hours available for

leisure, and 23.33% of men have 4 hours.

Figure 16. Hours at a time available for leisure

Following on from the previous question, Figure 17

shows that 44.68% of men and 46.15% of women

consider that the time for rest is not enough.

Figure 17. The time I have available for leisure is sufficient

According to the IMO in the “Guidance on Fatigue

Reduction and Management” [51], when fatigue affects

a crewmember's alertness, the crewmember's

productivity can be significantly reduced. This

reduction manifests itself in physical, emotional and

mental traits, such as decision-making, quick reactions,

perception, coordination between movement and

vision, and countless other faculties. It is difficult for

workers to appreciate the degree of fatigue they are

experiencing, and fatigue can be dangerous. The

following are some of the effects of fatigue on

performance:

− Fatigued crewmembers have difficulty maintaining

attention and may suffer memory lapses.

− Fatigue can affect an individual's ability to react to,

perceive, interpret and understand stimuli and may

require more time to deal with them.

− Fatigue also affects the ability to solve problems,

which is an integral part of performing new or

novel tasks. So the consequences will not be the

same for the seafarer as for the officer on watch,

because the role played also plays an important

role.

The most commonly reported symptom of fatigue

is “difficulty in concentration”.

Figure 18 shows that 29.89% of men and 32.00% of

women reported to suffer difficulty concentrating,

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which means that this problem is present in almost a

third of workers.

Figure 18. Gender and difficulty concentrating

3.7 Other factors affecting fatigue and stress

A research on the occupational health of 668 Chinese

seafarers, shows that they seem to be satisfied with

their wages and the quality of the food on board, but

they are less satisfied with the long voyages, excessive

daily working hours, environmental stress and

isolation from their families leading to numerous

physical and emotional problems, with psychological

problems coming second (7% of respondents). Chinese

seafarers call for improved communication with family

and friends, good medical care and enriched

psychological counselling services (28% of respondents

acknowledged a need for psychological counselling)

[52].

In relation to the study carried out, the results

obtained for the parameters “food on board”,

“communication” and “isolation” are shown next.

We can observe a difference between men and

women, the Figure 19 shows that 41.14% of men think

that the food on board is healthy while only 28.20% of

women think so.

Figure 19. I consider the food on board to be healthy

Figure 20 shows that 47.37% of men and 44% of

women acknowledge that they communicate with

your family and friends by telephone or internet.

Figure 20. Gender and frequency with which you can

communicate with your family and friends by telephone or

internet

Although seafarers are increasingly able to

communicate regularly with family and friends thanks

to technological advances, crew members report

feeling isolated on board.

Figure 21 shows that 43.27% of men and 36% of

women acknowledge that they ‘sometimes’ feel

isolated during the trip.

Figure 21. Gender and frequency with which you feel

isolated during the trip

4 CONCLUSIONS

The results show that a relationship between the

seafarers’ gender and the perception of both stress and

fatigue can be established. This conclusion is reached

through the analysis of personal characteristics and

how the results vary depending on gender. Several

variables have been compared to determine if

differences between men and women perception can

be stablished. The first important difference is the

average age of gender groups, although both are

between 31 and 40 years old (the age at which most of

their working life is spent), 27.67% of men continue

working on board beyond the age of 50, while only a

meager 2% of women do so. This is probably related to

the fact that women have less than five years of

experience and most men have more than 10 years of

experience working at sea. In addition, most of women

sail in coastal navigation vessels, whereas men prefer

deep-sea navigation, this could point out a relationship

between the crew members’ personal conditions and

299

the type of navigation. Next, it should be noted that

while 25.15% of men are captains only 6.52% of women

occupy commanding positions. Something very

similar happens in the engine section, while more than

10% of men occupy the position of chief engineer a

scarce 4% of women do so. According to this data it

could be stablished that the fact of women sailing less

time makes it difficult for them to manage to reach the

highest positions on board. The reasons may be that if

they do not work on board long enough they do not

really acquire the professional qualification to be a

captain or a chief engineer, or they do not acquire

enough stability within the company to be assigned to

these positions.

With regard to the symptoms of stress, although

more than 30% of the participants suffer from

migraines or headaches, there is a notable difference

between genders: 26% of men say they “almost never”

suffer from migraines or headaches and almost 31% of

women say they suffer from them “very often”. With

regard to “tendency to eat, drink and smoke more than

usual”, differences are also observed since 42% of

female seafarers suffer from it “very often” compared

to 22.65% of male seafarers who report this. In

addition, 74.54% of female seafarers suffer from a

“feeling of extreme tiredness or exhaustion” compared

to 55.25% of male seafarers who suffer from this

symtom.

As for the level of fatigue, there is a significant

difference, with 24% of men reporting a “low” level of

fatigue and 44% of women a “high” level.

As for the hours of sleep and whether this time is

enought, although both sexes tend to say that this time

is not enough, in the case of women the percentages are

higher, probably because women need more hours of

deep sleep and rest to recover mentally.

There are other factors that can influence stress

and/or fatigue, such as food, 51.02% of the women

consider it to be unhealthy, while 31.21% of the men

think so. Other important data is that despite being

able to communicate with their loved ones often while

on board, 43.27% of men and 36% of women feel

isolated during the trip.

The results obtained in this study show that men

and women have different ways of perceiving and

coping with stress and fatigue and that several topics

such as the gender differences in job promotion,

influence of family conditions on job performance and

how living conditions on board can affect male and

female welfare differently, need further and in depth

research.

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