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1 INTRODUCTION
UNCTAD (2024) reports that global trade volume hit a
record of 33 trillion USD, a 3.7% increase, or roughly
1.2 trillion more than in 2023. The expansion resulted
in an increase in the need for maritime professionals,
such as skilled seafarers, port workers, and logistics
staff (Paryono, 2017). For this reason, maritime
education and training is now an important part of
making sure that people are capable of doing a variety
of nautical jobs by giving them the knowledge and
skills they need (IMO, 2018).
In 2021, the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) conducted a Regulatory Scoping Exercise (RSE)
on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) to
assess how existing IMO regulations could be adapted
and applied to accommodate the operation of
emerging autonomous vessels (IMO, 2021b). Under
environment protection, IMO has revised IMO
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Strategy, adopted in July 2023,
and outlines clear targets for 2030, 2040, and 2050.
According to RESOLUTION MEPC.377(80), by 2030,
the carbon intensity of international shipping must be
reduced by at least 40% compared to 2008 levels, and
the use of zero- or near-zero-GHG emission
technologies and fuels should account for at least 5% of
the energy used, with an aspirational goal of 10%. By
2040, total annual GHG emissions from international
shipping should be reduced by at least 70%, striving
towards 80%. By 2050, the strategy aims for the
shipping industry to reach net-zero GHG emissions,
ensuring that it no longer contributes to global
warming (IMO, 2023a).
Maritime TVET in Transition: Global Trends,
Institutional Innovation, and Strategic Reform
A.S. Kamis, A.F. Ahmad Fuad, S.A. Ali, W.N. Wan Mansor, S.Z.A. Syed Ahmad
& M.F. Ali Akhbar
University Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
ABSTRACT: The rapid transformation of the maritime industry, driven by technological advancements,
digitalisation, and evolving regulatory frameworks, has created an urgent need to modernise maritime Technical
and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). This review examines the current landscape, innovations, and
challenges in maritime TVET by analysing a broad range of recent academic and institutional literature. The study
identifies key areas of focus, including curriculum relevance, simulation-based and digital learning, competency-
based education, and strong industry-academic collaboration. It highlights the importance of integrating
emerging technologies such as e-learning, virtual reality, and smart glass to meet industry standards and prepare
graduates for dynamic maritime careers. Additionally, it emphasises the necessity of expanding access to TVET
pathways, upgrading instructor competencies, and aligning national policy with practical workforce demands.
The findings underscore that a flexible, responsive, and industry-aligned TVET system, supported by sustainable
funding, global collaboration, and policy reform, is essential for developing a future-ready maritime workforce
capable of supporting sustainable growth.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 20
Number 1
March 2026
DOI: 10.12716/1001.20.01.14
132
These are among several new regulations and
strategies introduced by the IMO as part of its ongoing
efforts to support the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Consequently, these
initiatives have led maritime education and training
(MET) providers around the globe to enhance their
curricula to meet the IMO vision and industry
standards (T. E. Kim et al., 2021; Paryono, 2017).
A comprehensive approach to maritime TVET that
incorporates both theoretical and practical training has
been highlighted by recent studies (Renganayagalu et
al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2019). In TVET, practical hands-
on training is prioritised over traditional classroom
theory. A number of MET institutions have begun
enhancing their training methods by adopting TVET-
based approaches, including Akademi Laut Malaysia
(ALAM). ALAM has introduced a new training model
for ratings based on the Malaysian Skills Certificate
framework, specifically utilising Malaysia Department
of Skills Development’s National Occupational Skill
Standard (NOSS), H501-003-3:2019-Navigation
Watchkeeping and Deck Operation for deck rating,
and H501-002-3:2017-Marine Engine Maintenance
Operation for engine rating (ALAM, 2019). This
initiative not only improves instructional methods but
also provides graduates with dual certification
recognized both internationally and by the Malaysian
government.
The industry necessitates exposing students to
cutting-edge technologies alongside practical training.
This rapid change in the industry requires students to
be proficient in using the latest technology. As a result,
simulation-based training and e-learning platforms
have proven to be effective in enhancing student
engagement and educational outcomes for maritime
and shipping operations, meeting all industry
demands (Sharma et al., 2019).
While delivering all training through the
integration of simulators and e-learning, it is
imperative for the training institute to meet the
learning objective, as laid out in the course outline.
Section B-I/6 of the Seafarers' Training, Certification,
and Watchkeeping (STCW) Code requires that
everyone involved must make sure that any distance
learning and e-learning program achieves the
necessary learning goals to provide important
knowledge and skills in the subject (IMO, 2018).
Nonetheless, obstacles including financial limitations,
antiquated infrastructure, and a deficiency of
competent educators persist as substantial
impediments to efficient marine TVET (Sellberg, 2018)
2 THE PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH
AIM
The maritime sector is experiencing significant
transformation due to the swift incorporation of
innovative technologies, including automation and
digitalisation (Nazir et al., 2015; Ziarati et al., 2010). If
the traditional training approach fails to keep up with
demand, it may risk a workforce that is inadequately
prepared for the requirements of modern maritime
operations (Bartusevičienė & Valionienė, 2021). The
gap between the existing syllabus and training
methodologies and industry standards may present a
significant obstacle and jeopardise the safety,
efficiency, and competitiveness of the industry
(Catalin, 2013). Consequently, it is essential to evaluate
and rectify the shortfalls in maritime TVET to
guarantee that the workforce is sufficiently equipped
for the current and future setting (Reza Emad &
Kataria, 2022).
This review article intends to conduct an analysis of
the present condition of maritime TVET, explore the
innovations made to the syllabus, including the
program outline and teaching methods, pinpoint
significant challenges and opportunities, and propose
ideas for enhancing the quality and relevance of
maritime education.
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
This study uses a qualitative research design targeted
to review multiple research papers specifically in
maritime TVET. But the study will include all research
from various fields to avoid missing any variables or
factors. The concept is to review research and consider
all variables or factors from various fields of TVET
programs. Then, the authors will engage in discussions
to filter only the variables that can be integrated into
maritime TVET.
3.2 Data Collection
This study utilised diverse sources, including peer-
reviewed journal articles, industry reports, and
regulatory documents, to develop a comprehensive
understanding of contemporary trends and challenges
in TVET that extends beyond the maritime sector.
Furthermore, it examined practical instances from
maritime institutions to demonstrate the application of
innovative pedagogical methods and emerging
technologies in practice. This entailed a thorough
analysis of their curricula, pedagogical techniques, and
strategies for delivering education innovatively and
effectively.
The case studies were selected according to three
primary criteria: (1) Relevance: institutions employing
innovative methodologies in maritime education,
particularly those incorporating technology and
simulation-based learning; (2) Diversity: a range of
institutions from various global regions that provide
an international perspective on maritime TVET
practices; and (3) Impact: institutions recognised for
their significant contributions to the enhancement of
maritime education and training.
3.3 Collating, Summarising, and Reporting Results
The next stage involves assigning appropriate labels to
the identified factors and their corresponding sub-
factors. According to Nowell et al. (2017), a factor can
be derived either directly from raw data or
thoughtfully based on existing theoretical frameworks.
In this study, the researchers opted to reference prior
studies to guide the naming of these factors. For
instance, after analysing the collected data, it was
found that the occurrences could be grouped into three
133
main categories: 1) the current state of TVET, 2)
innovation, and 3) challenges and opportunities. As a
result, Table 1 summarises the identified factors.
3.3.1 Current state of TVET
The current state of TVET was determined as the
first factor in this research. As an outcome, the factors
identified in this study can be divided into four sub-
factors: 1) curriculum and pedagogy (CP), 2)
technological integration (TI), 3) industry partnership
(IP), and 4) challenges and barriers (CB).
3.3.2 Innovation
The second factor that was identified was
innovation. It consists of 1) Simulation-Based Training
(SBT), 2) E-Learning Platforms (ELP), 3) Competency-
Based Education (CBE), and 4) Policy and Frameworks
(PF)
3.3.3 Challenges and opportunity
Finally, the third factor identified was the
challenges and opportunities presented by the project.
The factor consists of 1) Funding and Resources (FR),
2) Instructor Training and Development (TD), 3)
Curriculum Relevance (CR), and 4) Global
Collaboration (GC)
Table 1. Thematic table summarizing the findings of the study
No
Country
Synopsis
Focus of the study
Current
state of
TVET
Innovation
Challenges
and
opportunity
CP
TI
IP
CB
SBT
ELP
CBE
PF
FR
TD
CR
GC
1
Not specified
This study used enhanced simulation-based team training to
address maritime safety and security, utilizing specialized
simulators to realistically represent on-board vessel
conditions for emergency response and crisis management
scenarios
√
√
2
Philippines
The study conducted a review and analysis of maritime
security initiatives and their implications on partnerships,
utilizing qualitative data from interviews and document
analysis
√
√
3
Not specified
This study used a case study methodology focusing on
collaborative e-learning in maritime education, including
surveys and interviews to assess the impact of e-learning
platforms
√
√
√
4
Australia
A case study approach was employed to evaluate the
advantages through industry-university collaboration in a
maritime management program, using qualitative data from
interviews and program assessments
√
5
China
The study applied e-learning methodologies in maritime
education and training in China, using a combination of
literature review and practical applications in maritime
institutions
√
√
6
Not specified
The study utilized communication and information
technologies and simulators to train future navigation
specialists, employing both theoretical and practical training
approaches
√
7
Malaysia
This study conducted a review of immersive and non-
immersive simulators used in maritime education and
training, systematically analyzing their applications and
effectiveness through a systematic literature review
√
√
8
Not specified
The study focused on the impact of education on maritime
safety improvement, employing qualitative methods to
analyse educational techniques and their effectiveness in
improving safety competencies.
√
9
Croatia
This study used a literature review and practical
implementation to explore the use of e-learning in maritime
affairs, evaluating its effectiveness in training maritime
professionals
√
√
√
10
UK
The study used a qualitative research approach to
understand attrition in UK maritime education and training,
including interviews and surveys with maritime students
and professionals
√
11
Finland
A proactive approach was used in maritime safety
policymaking, utilizing a combination of case studies and
simulations to identify best practices in the Gulf of Finland
√
√
12
Egypt
The study incorporated virtual reality into maritime safety
training, using a combination of virtual simulations and
competency-based learning outcomes assessments
√
13
International
This document provides international standards and codes
for maritime training and certification, focusing on
regulatory compliance and best practices in maritime
education
√
√
√
134
14
(T. E. Kim et al.,
2021)
Rwanda
This study reviewed the continuum of simulator-based
maritime training and education, analyzing various types of
simulators and their pedagogical advancement
√
√
√
15
(Liu et al., 2020)
Singapore
The study conducted a pilot assessment of VR-based
firefighting training in maritime contexts, using a
combination of virtual reality simulations and human factors
analysis
√
16
(Magramo et al.,
2009)
Not specified
The study examined the role of maritime institutions in
addressing the shortage of officers, using a combination of
qualitative interviews and institutional analysis
√
17
(Sharma et al.,
2019)
Norway
This study rethought maritime education, training, and
operations in the digital era, using a combination of literature
review and case studies to explore the application of
emerging immersive technologies
√
18
(Martes, 2020)
Not specified
The study focused on best practices in competency-based
education in maritime and inland navigation, using a
combination of theoretical analysis and practical applications
√
19
(Musyimi et al.,
2018)
Kenya
The study examined the Belt and Road Initiative and its
impact on technical and vocational education and training
(TVET) in Kenya, using qualitative methods including
interviews and case studies
√
20
(Mutebi & Ferej,
2023)
Uganda
This review analyzed TVET quality assurance practices in
Uganda, utilizing document analysis and qualitative
interviews
√
21
(Muya Maina,
2016)
Kenya
The study assessed the relevancy of curriculum content in
integrating ICTs in Kenya's TVET institutions, using a
combination of surveys and qualitative analysis
√
22
(Naziz, 2019)
Bangladesh
The study proposed a model for collaboration between TVET
and universities, using a combination of literature review and
qualitative interviews
√
23
(Ochavillo, 2020)
Not specified
This study explored the paradigm shift in learning in
maritime education amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, using
surveys and interviews to analyze the effectiveness of new
learning method
√
24
(Praetorius &
Sellberg, 2022)
Not specified
The study investigated strengths and weaknesses in
professional marine pilot education, using qualitative
methods including interviews and case study analysis
√
25
(Prayogo et al.,
2022)
Not specified
This study examined maritime education in the post-COVID-
19 era, using a combination of surveys and case studies to
evaluate changes in educational practices
√
26
(Rashid et al.,
2009)
Malaysia
The study focused on research and development for capacity
building in TVET, using a case study approach to evaluate an
international PhD program
√
27
(Renganayagalu
et al., 2019)
Not specified
This study investigated the impact of simulation fidelity on
student self-efficacy and perceived skill development in
maritime training, using a combination of surveys and
comparative analysis
√
28
(Renganayagalu
et al., 2022)
Norway
The study examined maritime education and training in the
COVID-19 era and beyond, using a combination of literature
review and case studies to analyze the impact of the
pandemic
√
29
(Rony et al., 2019)
Not specified
The study explored new policy frameworks for
environmental performance management in shipping, using
a pilot study approach with qualitative data from
stakeholders
√
30
(Schröder, 2019)
Not specified
This study examined regional approaches for the
development of TVET systems, using qualitative methods
including interviews and document analysis
√
31
(Semjonovs et al.,
2015)
Not specified
The study focused on enhancing the quality of in-house
training in maritime education, using a combination of
surveys and interviews to assess instructor competence
√
32
(Sharma & Nazir,
2021)
Not specified
This exploratory study assessed the technology self-efficacy
of maritime instructors, using surveys and qualitative
interviews to analyze self-efficacy levels
√
33
(Sotiroski, 2016)
EU
The study examined the EU and international legal
framework in maritime safety, using a combination of
document analysis and case studies
√
34
(Tusher et al.,
2023)
Not specified
The study sought best practices in assessment in maritime
simulator training, using a combination of surveys and case
studies
√
35
(Vujičić et al.,
2020)
Not specified
The study assessed methods for ensuring adequately
qualified instructors in maritime education, using surveys
and qualitative analysis
√
135
36
China
This study implemented a school-enterprise cooperative
education model for marine practice teaching, using a
combination of practical applications and theoretical analysis
√
37
Not specified
The document focused on simulation and training solutions
for maritime education, using document analysis and case
studies to evaluate simulator effectiveness
√
38
Not specified
The study introduced a competence-based approach in
maritime training, using a combination of literature review
and practical applications in educational settings
√
39
United
Kingdom
The study investigates the pedagogy of a marine simulation
program, aiming to comprehend its profound learning
components through the use of a mixed-methods approach.
The study collects student perception data by means of a
reflection-based survey.
√
√
CP: Curriculums and Pedagogy
TI: Technological Integration
IP: Industry Partnership
CB: Challenges and Barriers
SBT: Simulation-Based Training
ELP: E-Learning Platforms
CBE: Competency-Based Education
PF: Policy and Frameworks
FR: Funding and Resources
TD: Instructor Training and Development
CR: Curriculum Relevance
GC: Global Collaboration
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The authors presented and discussed the findings of
various TVET education programs and explored their
potential implementation in maritime TVET.
The study led to the findings of 3 factors, namely 1.
Current state of TVET, 2. Innovation, and 3.
Challenges.
However, to avoid redundancy while discussing
the findings, due to the interrelated nature of the
discussion points shown in Figure 1, the content is
organized into two subsections: (4.1) the current state
of global TVET and innovations adaptable to maritime
TVET, and (4.2) challenges and opportunities.
Figure 1. Relationships between subfactors for future
development of maritime TVET framework
4.1 Current State of global TVET and Innovation
adaptable to maritime TVET
TVET is widely recognised as a special framework
designed for training an industry-ready workforce,
aiming at sustainable development on a global scale. It
has been utilised in various fields and was found
effective to prepare students for industry to boost
productivity in various regions. Its role in boosting
economic growth by supplying a highly skilled
workforce that caters to the demands of both local and
global markets is undeniable. The strong link between
post-secondary TVET participation and higher per
capita income has been extensively studied,
highlighting the significance of investing in vocational
education to enhance economic performance (Pavlova,
2014).
Maritime education is an area where the IMO has
taken a strong stance, leading to the development of
various IMO Model Courses as a reference for syllabus
development for seafarers and maritime workers
(IMO, 2018). It is important to highlight, while STCW
focuses more on seafaring competency, ranging from
support crew to management level, maritime TVET
spans the whole maritime industry, including ports
and terminals. These programs typically include
comprehensive courses in navigation, ship operation,
offshore engineering, and safety management, which
are essential for preparing students for the various
technical and operational roles in the maritime sector
(IMO, 2018; Paryono, 2017). Such curricula ensure that
graduates are well-versed in the theoretical and
practical aspects necessary to operate and manage
modern maritime vessels efficiently (T. E. Kim et al.,
2021; Ogur, 2023).
The study acknowledges the role of the current
maritime syllabus in preparing seafarers for
operational duties. However, there is concern about the
need for the program to be revised to remain aligned
with industry needs and technological progress. In
response to the needs, IMO has undertaken several
initiatives, including systematically incorporating
innovation into the regulatory framework. This
process includes carefully balancing technology with
the need to preserve safety, environmental protection,
international trade facilitation, and well-being of
personnel (IMO, 2025). Proactive curriculum
development will not only close the gap between
traditional practices and industry expectations but will
also safeguard the industry's long-term resilience and
sustainability (Paryono, 2017).
4.1.1 Curriculum and Pedagogy – Utilization of
simulator for interactive learning
Traditional pedagogical approaches, which rely
heavily on classroom-based instruction, should be
supplemented by more interactive and technology-
driven methods (Dewan et al., 2023; Pangeni & Karki,
2021). Interactive learning is an educational approach
that emphasises active student participation and
engagement through dialogue, collaboration, and
hands-on activities. It usually involves the use of
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digital tools, multimedia, and innovative techniques,
such as group projects, discussions, and problem-
solving exercises. This approach is different from
traditional teaching methods, where students are
treated as passive recipients of the knowledge (Zhang,
2005).
A study from clinical training involving a 3-day
workshop for paramedic students shows interactive
simulation training led to performance increases of
approximately 35% to 53.4% and confidence
improvements ranging from 55.7% to 60.5%. The focus
of this training was on practical scenario simulation
assessments (PSSAs), where students participated in
simulated emergency situations designed to replicate
real-life scenarios that they might encounter in their
professional roles (Carter et al., 2018).
As interactive learning encourages a pedagogical
approach that actively engages students in the
educational process, the IMO has also introduced its
own initiatives. Under the Integrated Technical
Cooperation Programme (ITCP), training plays a vital
role in supporting the implementation of international
maritime standards and enhancing the capacity of
Member States to effectively enforce IMO instruments.
Traditionally, these training activities have been
delivered in person and tailored to meet the specific
needs and requirements of individual countries and
regions. However, given the accelerating pace of global
digitalisation, particularly in teaching and virtual
learning, the IMO is evolving its operational practices
by adopting new digital approaches to accommodate
the growing demand for online courses and to better
support the global maritime industry (IMO, 2023b).
Additionally, according to MSC.1/Circular.1609,
interactive learning approaches via technology and
video are encouraged to increase participant
comprehension (IMO, 2019). These initiatives will
allow the student to actively participate in the learning
process through simulation and practical training and
improve the retention of knowledge and skills. In
addition, simulated real-world scenarios through
interactive technologies like simulators and e-learning
platforms greatly enhance the educational experience
of maritime students (Shen et al., 2019; Youssef, 2018).
The use of simulators allows students to gain hands-on
augmented experience in a controlled environment,
thereby enhancing their practical skills and
preparedness for real-world scenarios (Nazir &
Hjelmervik, 2018; Sharma et al., 2019). The combination
cloud-based simulator and physical simulator has been
recognised as notable progress in maritime education,
offering more adaptable and efficient training options
(Chen et al., 2017).
In maritime education and training, the use of
simulators is more focused on ship operations. These
simulators allow students to practice navigation, ship
manoeuvring, engine room watchkeeping, and
emergency response without the actual risks
(Danylenko et al., 2021). Notably, immersive and non-
immersive simulators help students develop essential
seafaring skills in a safe and controlled environment,
which is crucial for their competence and confidence in
real-world operations (Dewan et al., 2023). In other
words, simulation training allows for the rehearsal of
complex and emergency scenarios that would be too
dangerous or impractical to practice at sea. As an
example, a study on engine room simulation training
found that students who trained with advanced
simulators reported higher motivation and perceived
skill development compared to those using traditional
methods (Mallam et al., 2019). Another study
emphasised the importance of team training via
simulation, demonstrating that practice runs on
sophisticated simulators could effectively prepare
seafarers for emergency responses and crisis
management (Baldauf et al., 2016). In another survey-
based study by Jamil & Bhuiyan (2021), 112 maritime
students from a UK university expressed that the
simulator provided significant hands-on experience by
bridging theory and practice, allowing them to better
prepare for real-life scenarios. The use of high-fidelity
simulators, which provide a realistic representation of
maritime environments, enhances learning outcomes
by improving student engagement and retention of
skills (Mallam et al., 2019). This approach ensures that
graduates are better prepared for the challenges they
will face in their maritime careers, making them more
competent and confident professionals.
4.1.2 Technological Integration – E-Learning, Virtual
Reality, smart glass
E-learning platforms have revolutionised education
by making essential training more accessible and
convenient for students. These platforms support the
delivery of courses and training programs virtually,
allowing learners to access study materials and
participate in interactive sessions from anywhere. This
flexibility is particularly beneficial for seafarers who
often face challenges in attending traditional
classroom-based courses due to their demanding
schedules and work structure (Galić et al., 2020)
An e-learning platform provides advantages not
only to students and instructors but also to maritime
personnel and management. Resolution MSC.349(92)
and Resolution MEPC.237(65), Appendix 1—
Requirements for Training and Qualification of
Recognised Organisation's Technical Staff, specify the
criteria for the training and certification of technical
personnel employed by recognised organisations.
These standards encourage the use of remote learning
and e-learning technologies to offer some components
of the training. Nevertheless, a minimum of fifty
percent of the overall theoretical training days must
take place in a classroom setting in order to promote
dialogue, deliberation, and the exchange of the
instructor's expertise with the participants (IMO, 2014).
E-learning platforms offer flexible and accessible
learning opportunities for maritime students. These
platforms can host a variety of educational resources,
including interactive modules, video lectures, and
assessments (Galić et al., 2020; Popa & Cupsa, 2019;
Prayogo et al., 2022). The use of e-learning platforms
has been particularly beneficial during the COVID-19
pandemic, enabling continuity of education despite
disruptions to traditional classroom instruction
(Bolmsten et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2017; Ochavillo,
2020). According to MSC.1/Circular.1643—Guidance
on Seafarers' Training and Certification for Issuing
Administrations, Flag States, and Port States During
the Covid-19 Pandemic, remote training might be used
to support ongoing professional development. This
might be implemented through online training or e-
learning, depending on the suitability of each method.
137
However, it may not be feasible to offer training and
hands-on skill demonstrations in this manner, which
should be taken into account when revalidating
certifications (IMO, 2021a)
Moreover, e-learning can cater to diverse learning
styles and preferences, enhancing student engagement
and learning outcomes (Galić et al., 2020; Popa &
Cupsa, 2019). However, the challenge is to ensure the
content is aligned with the IMO requirements.
According to the CTU Code—IMO/ILO/UNECE Code
of Practice for Packing of Cargo Transport Units—
training can be provided by external or distance e-
learning providers. However, when parties enlist the
help of external training providers, it is important to
ensure that these providers are capable of delivering
training that aligns with the requirements of the IMO
(IMO, 1997).
Technological integration in TVET has gained
traction, with institutions adopting virtual reality (VR)
tools to enhance the learning experience. These
technologies provide students with immersive and
interactive learning opportunities that can replicate
complex maritime operations (Chen et al., 2017; Galić
et al., 2020). Additionally, online learning platforms
offer flexibility and accessibility, enabling students to
learn at their own pace and convenience (Popa &
Cupsa, 2019).
Therefore, the integration of these advanced
technologies into maritime TVET will not only
improve the quality of education but also address the
limitations of traditional training methods. By
leveraging e-learning platforms and VR tools,
maritime institutions can offer a more engaging,
efficient, and flexible learning experience, better
preparing students for the complexities of the maritime
industry (Galić et al., 2020; Renganayagalu et al., 2022;
Shen et al., 2019).
The integration of training with smart glasses has
shown a significant impact on education. These devices
offer students the opportunity to engage with real-time
industrial scenarios, enhancing their understanding
and preparedness for future employment. Smart
glasses, commonly used in industrial settings, are
typically worn by supervisors or technicians as seen in
Figure 2, and equipped with live-streaming
capabilities. This technology enables the real-time
transmission of workplace operations directly to
students, allowing them to observe actual industrial
procedures from a remote location (Choi & Kim, 2021;
Kumar et al., 2018; Romare & Skär, 2023). By
witnessing these live industrial practices, students are
exposed to authentic work environments and
processes even before physically entering the
workforce, thus bridging the gap between theoretical
learning and industry practice (Abdullah et al., 2019).
Figure 2. (a) Live information and (b) a participant milking
(live video can be streamed by student) (Caria et al., 2020)
4.1.3 Industry Partnerships
Across all fields, collaboration between educational
institutions and industry stakeholders was identified
to be significantly important in ensuring that TVET
programs are aligned with industry needs. The
advantage of industry partnerships is that they can
facilitate the sharing of resources, expertise, and best
practices, thereby enhancing the quality and relevance
of maritime TVET (Bolmsten et al., 2021; Vuletic et al.,
2017). Effective collaboration between academia and
industry ensures that educational programs remain
relevant and up-to-date with the latest technological
advancements and industry requirements. By
integrating industry insights and feedback into their
curricula, educational institutions can provide training
that better equips students with the skills needed in the
maritime sector (Bolmsten et al., 2021; Jahonga et al.,
2016).
4.1.4 Competency-Based Education
Competency-based education (CBE) emphasises
the development and assessment of specific skills and
competencies essential for maritime professions,
particularly for seafarers. This focus on skill mastery is
the reason why their certification is commonly referred
to as a Certificate of Competency (COC) (Demirel,
2020). CBE models emphasise practical training and
real-world application, ensuring that graduates are job-
ready and meet industry standards (Frias et al., 2022;
Zaytseva, 2016). This approach has been shown to
improve student retention and employability, as it
aligns educational outcomes with industry needs
(Edwin Obwoge, 2016; Martes, 2020).
CBE ensures that maritime students acquire the
necessary competencies to operate effectively in their
professional roles. By focusing on practical training
and real-world applications, CBE prepares students to
handle the specific demands and challenges of
maritime professions. This hands-on approach is
essential for developing the skills required for safe and
efficient maritime operations (Okoye & I., 2015;
Zaytseva, 2016).
Moreover, CBE has been shown to improve
educational outcomes by tailoring the learning process
to the specific needs of students and industry
requirements. For example, CBE programs in maritime
education have successfully integrated practical
exercises, simulations, and real-life scenarios to
enhance learning and ensure students are well-
138
prepared for their careers (Frias et al., 2022). This
alignment with industry standards not only improves
student retention but also enhances their employability
by providing them with relevant and applicable skills
(Edwin Obwoge, 2016).
4.1.5 Policy and Frameworks
Effective policies and frameworks are essential for
supporting the development and implementation of
innovative TVET programs. National and international
regulatory bodies play a key role in setting standards
and guidelines for maritime education and training.
For example, the European Union and the
International Maritime Organisation (IMO) have
developed comprehensive frameworks that enhance
maritime safety and environmental standards, which
are critical for aligning TVET programs with industry
requirements (Rony et al., 2019; Sotiroski, 2016).
These policies and frameworks must also
accommodate the evolving technological
advancements. For example, MSC.1/Circ.1638—
Outcome of the Regulatory Scoping Exercise for the
Use of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS)—
emphasizes the importance of developing policies and
frameworks that support new policy for training (IMO,
2021b).
Collaborative efforts between governments,
educational institutions, and industry stakeholders can
facilitate the sharing of resources and best practices,
thereby enhancing the quality and relevance of
maritime TVET. Such partnerships are crucial for the
continuous improvement of TVET programs to meet
the evolving demands of the maritime industry. For
instance, initiatives in the Gulf of Finland have
demonstrated the effectiveness of regional
collaboration in developing proactive maritime safety
policies that involve multiple stakeholders in the
decision-making process (Haapasaari et al., 2015).
Moreover, frameworks like the Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) systems in
Uganda emphasise the importance of a coordinated
approach to policy implementation, quality assurance,
and governance to ensure that TVET programs
produce graduates who meet industry standards
(Mutebi & Ferej, 2023).
The study discovers the urgent need for the
government to broaden the entry requirements for
maritime education programs. In 2023, the Malaysia
Marine Department (MMD) took a significant step by
revising the entry standards for the combined diploma
and preparatory course for Officer in Charge of
Navigational Watch more than 500 GT and Officer in
Charge of Engineering Watch more than 750 kW
unlimited voyage. Previously, these programs were
only accessible to students who achieved five credits in
the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM). However, the
revised policy now allows Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) graduates, such as
those holding the Sijil Vokasional Malaysia (SVM) and
Sijil Kemahiran Malaysia (SKM), to enrol, even if they
did not sit for the SPM examination (MMD, 2023).
This initiative is very well-timed and necessary.
Seafaring is a career that demands strong hands-on
competencies, and TVET institutions are better
positioned to produce graduates with practical skills,
work ethics, and technical know-how essential for such
roles. In contrast, SPM students may be prone towards
academic pathways, and many lack interest in the
physically demanding, skill-intensive nature of
maritime work. As such, relying solely on academically
inclined SPM graduates as the talent pipeline for
maritime professions risks further decline in enrolment
and long-term workforce shortages.
To ensure a sustainable and inclusive maritime
workforce, this initiative by MMD should be adopted
across other accreditation frameworks as well.
Currently, entry into foundation programs, an
essential steppingstone towards bachelor’s degrees,
still requires five SPM credits. This prerequisite
effectively bars many capable TVET graduates from
progressing to higher education, thus limiting their
career advancement opportunities in the maritime
sector.
Therefore, the study strongly recommends a
comprehensive policy revision. The existing
frameworks, though well-intentioned, may
unintentionally exclude qualified and motivated
individuals from maritime careers. By realigning entry
requirements to reflect the practical nature of maritime
training and by recognising the value of TVET
pathways, Malaysia can ensure a more inclusive,
diversified, and competent maritime workforce in the
years to come.
4.2 Challenges and Opportunities in Maritime TVET
Despite the advancements, TVET faces several
challenges. Funding constraints and limited access to
modern training facilities can restrict the
implementation of innovative teaching methods and
technologies. For instance, in many countries, the
fragmented financing systems and high costs of TVET
programs lead to inadequate budgetary allocations,
making it difficult for institutions to provide quality
education and training (Hondonga & Ramaligela,
2019). In Nigeria, although the government has
allocated funds to TVET, the distribution of these funds
is often inefficient, which affects the overall
effectiveness of TVET programs (Osidipe, 2019).
The shortage of qualified instructors with both
industry experience and pedagogical expertise
significantly impacts the quality of education.
Particularly in the maritime sector, there is an
emphasis on the need for instructors to be not only
proficient in their technical fields but also skilled in
educational methodologies (MMD, 2017). Studies have
identified the lack of organisational support and
pedagogical training as factors that may diminish the
effectiveness of maritime education (Sellberg, 2018).
4.2.1 Funding and Resources
Adequate funding and resources are critical for the
successful implementation of maritime TVET
programs. Literature emphasises the role of financial
support in ensuring quality TVET education. Funding
from various sources, including government bodies,
industry partners, and international organisations, is
essential to overcoming financial constraints and
enhancing the quality of training facilities and
technologies (Amoamah et al., 2017; Osidipe, 2019).
However, many institutions face financial constraints
139
that limit their ability to invest in modern training
facilities and technologies. These financial limitations
hinder the effective delivery of TVET programs and
their ability to meet industry standards (Chinyere
Shirley et al., 2015; Edokpolor & Dumbiri, 2019).
4.2.1.1 Institution-industry collaboration
One of the key findings for technology issues
discovered in this study was the lack of collaboration
between universities and maritime sectors, which has
resulted in a talent deficit in the industry (Rauf et al.,
2023). Therefore, to ensure the future competitiveness
of the industry in post-pandemic times, the
collaboration between the university and the industry
is crucial (Vacondio et al., 2021). Moreover, internships
and apprenticeships provide students with valuable
hands-on experience and exposure to real-world
operations (Chadwick & Cashen, 2020; Wang et al.,
2015).
This issue can be resolved by strengthening the
relationship between the industry and educational
institutions. Taking examples across other fields, the
collaboration between educational institutions in
Malaysia with multinational companies such as Intel
and Motorola Solutions has led to the establishment of
129 MakerLabs in schools that significantly benefited
both the local population and the country. These
MakerLabs equip students with essential technical
skills like coding and 3D design. This initiative
enhances students' innovation, critical thinking, and
problem-solving abilities, preparing them for the
future workforce. Additionally, it strengthens
Penang’s position as a leader in education and
technological advancement in Malaysia (Citizen
Journal, 2024).
Therefore, collaborative networks within the
maritime sector can help in resource optimisation and
knowledge exchange, fostering an environment where
best practices can be shared and implemented across
institutions and companies (Naziz, 2019; Vuletic et al.,
2017). Such partnerships are instrumental in
developing comprehensive training programs that
cover both theoretical knowledge and practical skills.
Internships and apprenticeships are integral
components of this collaborative approach; having
industries offer students hands-on experience that is
invaluable for their professional development is crucial
(Chadwick & Cashen, 2020; Musyimi et al., 2018). With
industry and university collaboration, the student will
be able to get placement as early as possible to ensure
their career growth is not delayed. This practical
exposure not only enhances their learning experience
but also increases their employability upon
graduation.
4.2.1.2 Government fund
Securing funding from government bodies,
industry partners, and international organisations is
essential for supporting the growth and development
of maritime TVET. Effective strategies for funding
include public-private partnerships, donations, and
leveraging international aid to support TVET
infrastructure and program quality (Bhattarai et al.,
2021).
In Malaysia, for example, the government offers a
variety of funding opportunities aimed at fostering
innovation. One of the examples, the Applied
Innovation Fund (AIF) provided by the Malaysia
Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation
(MOSTI), supports various fields of innovation and is
open to individuals, including youth, single mothers,
and persons with disabilities. This fund is also
available to start-up companies, SMEs, higher
education institutions, government research institutes
(GRI), associations, cooperatives, and registered
NGOs. In addition, MOSTI offers other funding
programs such as Technology Development 1 (TeD1),
Technology Development 2 (TeD2), Bridging Grant
Fund, and strategic research funds through
implementing and monitoring agencies (SRF-APP) at
various levels of research and development (MOSTI,
2024).
4.2.1.3 Establishment of national strategic plan
The integration of TVET into the national strategic
plan in the Americas has played a crucial role in
driving economic growth, improving workforce skills,
and reducing unemployment, particularly in
developing countries. In Guyana and several Latin
American nations, the alignment of TVET with broader
national goals, such as poverty reduction, social
inclusion, and sustainable economic development, has
been particularly impactful. In Guyana, TVET has been
central to efforts to diversify the economy beyond
traditional sectors like agriculture and mining. This has
been supported by international organisations like the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
which have facilitated the development of TVET
programs tailored to the needs of the labour market,
enhancing employability and supporting economic
resilience (Paryono, 2017; Prada et al., 2023).
Similarly, in Latin American countries, TVET
integration has been supported by international
organisations and regional bodies, focusing on
improving education quality, aligning training with
market demands, and fostering partnerships between
governments, the private sector, and educational
institutions (Dixon & Hutton, 2016; Velázquez Gomar,
2014). The UNDP and other agencies have supported
modernising TVET curricula, improving teacher
training, and expanding access to vocational education
for marginalised communities, addressing the skills
gap and promoting social mobility.
As a result, the involvement of international
organisations like the UNDP has brought global best
practices and funding to the region, enabling countries
to develop more effective and inclusive TVET systems.
This has included promoting gender equality in
vocational training, integrating digital skills into TVET
programs, and fostering public-private partnerships to
ensure training relevance to industry needs (Urquidi,
2004).
4.2.2 Instructor Training and Development
Many institutions struggle to find instructors who
not only understand the theoretical aspects of maritime
training but also have practical, hands-on experience in
the industry. This gap results in a mismatch between
the skills taught and the skills required by the industry,
ultimately affecting the employability of graduates
140
(Lamichhane, 2016). In Nigeria, the need for enhanced
educational technology in technical schools is critical to
expose students to relevant knowledge and skills
required in the modern workforce, but this need is
often unmet due to funding and resource limitations
(Aniah & Mohammed, 2021).
Addressing these challenges requires a concerted
effort from policymakers, educators, and industry
stakeholders to invest in and support maritime TVET.
A sustainable financing mechanism is crucial for better
TVET service delivery. For example, in Nepal, TVET
financing has been influenced by various factors,
including the national economy and the engagement of
the private sector. Despite budget allocations, the
actual funds provided are often insufficient to achieve
significant improvements in TVET quality and
accessibility (Aryal, 2020). Similarly, in Nigeria,
effective strategies for funding TVET programs include
public-private partnerships, donations, and skill
development levies, which could help bridge the gap
in funding and resource allocation (Oviawe, 2020).
Ensuring that maritime instructors are adequately
qualified involves meeting the standards set by
international conventions and continuously updating
their competencies to align with industry
advancements (Semjonovs et al., 2015; Vujičić et al.,
2020). In Malaysia, one of the requirements for
maintaining status as a TVET provider is that
instructors must complete an industrial attachment
(MQA & JPK, 2021). According to the notification letter
MQA.100-1/7/2 JLD 3 (20), the TVET Standard states
that all teaching staff in service at TVET providers are
required to participate in industrial attachment
training for a cumulative period of one month every
two years (MQA, 2021; MQA & JPK, 2021). Industrial
attachment allows for the instructors to be up-to-date
with the industry advancement and latest regulatory
requirements. Continuous professional development is
crucial for maintaining high standards of maritime
education and training (W. Kim et al., 2019; Sharma et
al., 2019).
To effectively address the ongoing challenge of
attracting and retaining qualified instructors, it is
crucial to implement a multifaceted approach that not
only focuses on competitive salaries but also addresses
other significant factors. Offering competitive salaries
is a fundamental step, as financial incentives play a
critical role in attracting talent (Estimo, 2020).
However, salary alone is not sufficient to ensure long-
term retention. Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory (1959) posits that job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction arise from two distinct categories:
motivators, which are intrinsic factors such as
achievement, recognition, responsibility, personal
growth, and the nature of the work itself; and hygiene
factors, which are extrinsic elements including salary,
supervision, company policy, working conditions, job
security, and interpersonal relations (Alrawahi et al.,
2020; House & Wigdor, 1967).
Therefore, providing opportunities for career
advancement is equally important. Instructors are
more likely to stay committed to an organisation if they
see clear pathways for professional growth. This can
include access to continuing education, leadership
training programs, and opportunities for research and
innovation within their field. Such initiatives not only
enhance the skills of the instructors but also contribute
to their sense of fulfilment and professional satisfaction
(Kosyrev et al., 2009).
Creating a supportive working environment is
another crucial factor. This includes fostering a culture
of collaboration, providing access to modern teaching
tools and technologies, and ensuring manageable
workloads. Supportive environments also involve
recognising and addressing the unique challenges that
instructors face, such as balancing teaching
responsibilities with industry engagement and
professional development. Research has shown that
when educators feel supported by their institutions,
they are more likely to remain in their positions and
contribute positively to the educational outcomes
(Praetorius & Sellberg, 2022).
Moreover, offering flexibility in work
arrangements, such as allowing part-time positions or
sabbaticals for industry experience, can further
enhance retention. These strategies enable instructors
to stay current with industry trends, which in turn
enriches the learning experience for students and keeps
the educators engaged and motivated in their roles
(Estimo, 2020).
In summary, while competitive salaries are a key
element, they must be complemented by career
development opportunities and supportive working
environments to effectively attract and retain skilled
instructors in the long term.
4.2.3 Curriculum Relevance and Adaptability
Ensuring that maritime TVET curricula remain
relevant and adaptable to industry changes is crucial
for preparing students for the workforce. Regular
curriculum reviews and updates, informed by industry
feedback and technological advancements, help align
educational programs with current and future industry
needs. This alignment is essential to keep the curricula
up-to-date with the dynamic nature of the maritime
sector and its technological progress (Muya Maina,
2016; Pavlova, 2019).
Moreover, incorporating flexible and modular
course structures can allow students to tailor their
education to specific career goals and interests. This
approach not only caters to individual student needs
but also enhances the adaptability of the curriculum to
meet various industry requirements. Such modular
structures enable institutions to offer specialised
training that aligns with specific industry demands,
thereby improving employability (Huisinga, 2009;
Schröder, 2019).
4.2.4 Global Collaboration
Global collaboration and standardisation are key to
ensuring the quality and consistency of maritime TVET
across different regions. International partnerships and
exchanges can facilitate the sharing of knowledge,
resources, and best practices, thereby enhancing the
overall quality of maritime education. Such
collaboration is essential to address the challenges
posed by globalisation and technological changes,
ensuring that TVET remains relevant and effective
(Dambudzo, 2013; Naziz, 2019).
141
In Asia, the collaboration between institutions such
as the Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific
(MAAP) and international partners highlights the
importance of funded partnerships to enhance
maritime security training and capacity building
(Baylon & Santos, 2023). Similarly, initiatives in
Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries
demonstrate the role of international cooperation and
funding in developing robust TVET programs (Rashid
et al., 2009; Schröder, 2019).
Standardisation of certification and accreditation
processes can also ensure that maritime professionals
are equipped with the skills and competencies required
by the global maritime industry (IMO, 2018).
Additionally, the development of international
standards, such as those by ISO, plays a crucial role in
creating a unified framework for maritime education
and training, promoting interoperability, and ensuring
that qualifications are recognised globally (Đurić,
2023).
5 CONCLUSION
The evolution of maritime Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) is essential to meet the
growing demands of the global maritime sector, which
is being reshaped by technological innovation,
regulatory shifts, and the digital transformation of
shipping and port operations. This review highlights
that, while maritime TVET frameworks have made
significant progress, particularly through the
integration of simulators, e-learning, and competency-
based education. Critical challenges remain in aligning
curricula with industry needs, strengthening industry-
education partnerships, and addressing persistent
gaps in funding, instructor qualifications, and
infrastructure.
Simulation-based and digital learning methods
have been proven effective in enhancing practical skills
and student engagement, but their successful
implementation depends on the continuous
modernization of curricula and regular upskilling of
instructors. Expanding access to maritime programs by
broadening entry requirements, especially for TVET
graduates, is vital to ensuring a steady and diverse
talent pipeline for the maritime industry. Similarly,
policy reforms are needed to support inclusive
pathways from vocational to higher education and to
recognize the value of hands-on, skills-based training.
Despite advancements, financial constraints,
limited resources, and a shortage of industry-
experienced instructors continue to hinder progress.
Addressing these challenges requires sustained
government and industry investment, effective public-
private partnerships, and the creation of national
strategic plans that integrate TVET into broader
economic and workforce development strategies.
Global collaboration, standardization of
qualifications, and sharing of best practices are crucial
for maintaining the relevance and quality of maritime
TVET worldwide. Ultimately, the review underscores
the need for a flexible, responsive, and industry-
aligned TVET system, supported by robust policy
frameworks, stakeholder collaboration, and targeted
investment, to prepare maritime professionals who are
adaptable, innovative, and equipped to drive the
sector’s sustainable growth.
FUNDING
This work was supported by Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
under grant TAPERG/2025/UMT/6053.
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