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1 INTRODUCTION

The maritime heritage of Indonesia, particularly that of

the Bugis-Makassar people, has long been recognized

for its significant contributions to the archipelago’s

development and maritime dominance. In 1988,

Australian historian Peter Spillet brought global

attention to the long-standing connections between

Northern Australia and the Bugis-Makassar people,

asserting that Husein Daeng Rangka, a Bugis seafarer,

played a pivotal role in settling Northern Australia, a

region known historically as Marege. To substantiate

these historical connections, Spillet replicated a historic

voyage using a traditional Bugis vessel, Hati Maregge,

navigating from Makassar to Marege. This expedition,

supported by Hasanuddin University and the Darwin

Museum of Arts and Sciences, exemplified the

profound socio-cultural exchanges facilitated by Bugis-

Makassar seafarers during this period [1].

The Bugis-Makassar maritime expertise reached

global recognition through a series of significant

voyages of the phinisi boats in the late 20th century.

The Phinisi Nusantara sailed to Vancouver, Canada, in

1986 as part of a cultural promotion effort. In 1991, the

Phinisi Amanna Gappa journeyed to Madagascar,

tracing historical links and demonstrating the

seaworthiness of the phinisi in crossing oceans. The

1994 voyage of the Phinisi Damarsagara to Japan

further highlighted the craftsmanship of these

traditional vessels, while also promoting Indonesia’s

rich maritime culture [2].

As an archipelagic nation with thousands of islands

separated by vast seas, Indonesia’s history has been

shaped by the maritime activities of communities like

the ‘Pa’lopian’—expert seafarers from Tanjung Bira,

Bulukumba, South Sulawesi. These sailors possess a

remarkable ability to navigate the phinisi boats

through dangerous waters, relying solely on

Pa'lopian: The Mastery of Tanjung Bira Seafarers

in Navigating the Nusantara with Phinisi Vessels

in Indonesia

E. Demmalino, M. Lampe & A. Ismail

Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: The successful voyages of the phinisi Nusantara, from historical crossings to Singapore and Malaysia

during the Nusantara Kingdoms to late 20th-century expeditions to Vancouver, Madagascar, Australia, and

Japan, highlight the exceptional skills of Tanjung Bira seafarers. This study explores the mastery of these sailors,

known as Pa'lopian, in navigating the phinisi vessels. Conducted in Bira Village, South Sulawesi, Indonesia the

research employs a constructivist framework using case studies and phenomenological analysis, with data

gathered through observation, interviews, and documentation. The findings reveal that the seafarers’ expertise

lies in their ability to integrate knowledge of winds, currents, and waves for safe navigation. The study advocates

for preserving this traditional maritime knowledge by establishing a Community University to support its

transmission, especially in the context of maritime tourism. Integrating these indigenous practices into modern

educational systems is crucial for their survival and relevance.

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 19

Number 4

December 2025

DOI: 10.12716/1001.19.04.07

1106

indigenous knowledge of winds, currents, and waves.

This traditional expertise, rooted in local knowledge

systems, stands in stark contrast to the reliance on

modern technologies such as satellite navigation,

engines, and advanced safety equipment [3], [4], [5],

[6].

Local knowledge systems, particularly in maritime

contexts, represent a unique form of environmental

adaptation and resilience. In the case of the Tanjung

Bira seafarers, their expertise extends beyond

navigation, encompassing the holistic understanding

of environmental cues and the practical application of

this knowledge in day-to-day maritime operations.

Local knowledge systems, often termed as indigenous

knowledge, have been documented across various

cultures worldwide, each reflecting a deep connection

between human societies and their environments [7],

[8].

In Indonesia, the maritime traditions of the Bugis-

Makassar people stand as a testament to the adaptive

capabilities of local communities. Similar studies on

local knowledge systems in Indonesia have

highlighted practices such as the Patorani knowledge

system in fisheries conservation [9], the indigenous

time-keeping systems of the Batak people [10], and the

ecological wisdom of the Baduy people in rice

conservation [11]. These systems reflect the broad

spectrum of knowledge utilized by local communities

to adapt to environmental challenges and manage

natural resources sustainably. However, despite their

historical significance, these knowledge systems are

often marginalized in the face of modernization.

The seafaring knowledge of the Tanjung Bira

community is a distinctive part of this broader system

of local maritime knowledge. Their exceptional skills in

navigating phinisi boats, relying on wind patterns,

ocean currents, and environmental signs such as the

position of stars and the color of the sea, form an

intricate web of knowledge passed down through

generations. This study aims to document and analyze

the maritime expertise of the Tanjung Bira seafarers,

highlighting the value of their local knowledge systems

in contemporary contexts, particularly in the face of

growing interest in maritime tourism and the

preservation of cultural heritage. By doing so, this

research not only enriches the body of knowledge on

local maritime systems but also underscores the need

for preserving and integrating these systems into

modern educational frameworks.

2 METHOD

This study adopts a qualitative research approach

grounded in a constructivist paradigm to explore the

indigenous knowledge systems of the Pa’lopian

(master seafarers) from Tanjung Bira, South Sulawesi,

Indonesia. The research employs a case study method

combined with phenomenological analysis, aiming to

understand the lived experiences and traditional

maritime practices used by the seafarers to navigate

phinisi boats. By utilizing the constructivist approach,

the study emphasizes the subjective meanings

constructed by the seafarers regarding their interaction

with environmental elements such as wind, currents,

and waves [12].

The research was conducted in Bira village, located

in Bontobahari sub-district, Bulukumba Regency,

South Sulawesi, Indonesia which is known as the

origin of skilled phinisi boat builders and expert

sailors. The participants were selected through a

snowball sampling method [13], beginning with

prominent figures within the maritime community,

such as boat captains (ponggawa laut) and helmsmen

(juru mudi). These key informants, consisting of 15

individuals including 5 captains, 5 helmsmen, and 5

crew members (sawi), were chosen due to their

extensive experience and knowledge in traditional

navigation. Additionally, boat owners (ponggawa darat)

and community elders were included as supplemental

informants to provide a comprehensive understanding

of the indigenous knowledge system.

During the data collection phase, several methods

were employed to ensure rich and reliable data. First,

participant observation was conducted by joining short

voyages on the phinisi, during which the decision-

making processes and the ways sailors navigated the

boat based on environmental cues were directly

observed. This approach enabled an immersive

understanding of how the Pa’lopian utilize traditional

methods to interpret natural elements. Second, in-

depth interviews were conducted with the informants,

using semi-structured questions specifically designed

to explore their indigenous maritime knowledge. The

interviews, lasting between 60 and 90 minutes, were

recorded and subsequently transcribed to capture

detailed insights into their understanding of winds,

currents, waves, and other natural signs. Lastly,

historical records and documents related to the

maritime history of the Bugis-Makassar people were

analyzed to situate the practices within a broader

historical context.

To ensure the accuracy and credibility of the

findings, data triangulation was employed by cross-

referencing information gathered from observations,

interviews, and document analysis [14]. This method

allowed me to validate the consistency of the data from

different sources.

The data analysis was conducted through a multi-

stage process, beginning with the organization of

collected materials. Field notes, interview transcripts,

and observational records were systematically

arranged into thematic categories. Through initial

coding, recurring themes related to navigation

practices and their reliance on environmental factors

were identified. Subsequently, a horizon analysis was

performed [15] to capture the unique perspectives of

each participant, focusing on how they interpreted

environmental cues to guide their navigation. This step

was crucial in identifying the core elements of their

navigational knowledge, free from external theoretical

biases.

Subsequently, thematic analysis was employed to

group similar codes into broader themes that reflected

the collective experiences of the Pa’lopian.

Relationships between different themes were mapped,

particularly in relation to pre-sailing preparations,

navigation during voyages, and post-sailing rituals.

Through this process, a coherent representation of the

indigenous knowledge system was constructed.

Finally, the findings were synthesized into a narrative

that highlighted the unique traditional practices of the

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Tanjung Bira seafarers, offering a comparison between

their knowledge systems and modern navigation

techniques, and discussing how traditional and

contemporary methods can complement one another.

Throughout the research process, ethical

considerations were strictly adhered to. Approval was

obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of

Hasanuddin University. Informed consent was

secured from all participants, and their identities were

anonymized through the use of pseudonyms to

maintain confidentiality.

3 RESULT

In general, the Local Knowledge System in the

Navigation of the Phinisi Nusantara can be divided

into three stages: (1) Pre-Sailing Stage, (2) Sailing

Process Stage, and (3) Post-Sailing Stage. These three

stages of the Phinisi Nusantara navigation will be

elaborated as follows:

3.1 Pre-Sailing Phase

The fundamental philosophy for the master sailors of

Bugis-Makassar, particularly the expert sailors of

Tanjung Bira, is Kuallengi Tallanga na Toawalia, which

translates as "Better to Sink than to Return." The phrase

Kuallengi Tallanga na Toawalia carries a profound

meaning, particularly during the pre-sailing stage. It

implies that before setting sail, sailors must thoroughly

prepare themselves, leaving no room for returning due

to forgotten or incomplete preparations, whether

mental or physical, for both the sailors and the boat

they are navigating [16].

In the pre-sailing stage, locally referred to as

Appanaung Lopi, two key activities are carried out by

the sailing community: (1) preparing the boat to ensure

it is fully seaworthy, and (2) mentally preparing the

sailors so that they have no doubt or fear when setting

sail. A boat is deemed seaworthy when it has

undergone necessary renovations, including repairs to

the hull to prevent leaks, the replacement of masts to

improve speed, and other essential adjustments or

replacements. The importance of ensuring the boat's

structural integrity and the sailors' mental readiness is

well-documented in maritime studies of traditional

navigation systems.

Additionally, the boat must be fully equipped for

the voyage, including items such as nautical charts, a

compass and backup compass (for navigation), balance

stones (to stabilize the boat from tilting), provisions for

the journey, a flashlight (for illuminating the boat’s

direction), and a mirror (as a signalling device for other

vessels in case of an emergency). A key aspect of this

preparation process is ensuring that the boat can

withstand the open sea, with every component being

carefully tested before departure. The boat is

considered ready for sailing only after it has been

thoroughly inspected and successfully tested on a trial

sail of 3–5 nautical miles in the local harbor (see Figure

1). This rigorous testing phase is similar to practices

observed in other traditional seafaring communities,

where the success of the voyage depends on the careful

balance of technical and mental preparedness [17].

Figure 1. The Vessel Declared Seaworthy (Undergoing Trial

Sail)

After the vessel has been declared seaworthy,

mental preparation of the crew is equally crucial, as the

state of the ship and the crew must align perfectly. This

mental preparation is carried out through a series of

protective rituals (tolak bala), either collectively on the

ship before a trial sail or individually with family

members after the trial. These rituals often take the

form of prayers for safety during the voyage, led by an

experienced elder or religious figure. Offerings

(sesajen) serve as symbols of protection. The final ritual,

considered highly sacred, involves a personal moment

between the sailor and his wife. They sit opposite each

other, knees touching, with a white cloth between

them, symbolizing spiritual and physical unity. During

this intimate moment, they recite sacred phrases,

reaffirming their trust in divine protection for the sailor

during his journey. This practice reflects the profound

cultural belief that even in the face of potential danger,

the crew’s spiritual and mental state can determine the

outcome of the voyage.

This spiritual preparation reflects the broader

indigenous belief systems seen in other maritime

cultures, where success at sea is often attributed to the

favor of the spiritual world [18], [19]. In the case of the

Bugis-Makassar seafarers, their strong sense of fate and

duty—embodied in the prayer for safe return—is a

testament to the intertwined relationship between their

spiritual lives and their maritime livelihood. The ritual

reinforces the idea that the sea is not just a physical

space to be conquered, but also a realm influenced by

forces beyond human control, thus requiring respect

and reverence.

By combining meticulous technical preparation

with spiritual and mental readiness, the Bugis-

Makassar seafarers create a holistic system that ensures

both physical and emotional resilience. This approach

highlights the importance of integrating indigenous

practices into modern understandings of maritime

safety, particularly in the context of long voyages

where psychological endurance is as crucial as

technical skill [20].

3.2 Sailing Phase

Conceptually, every movement of the phinisi boat is

assumed to be at the centre of the cardinal points (see

Figure 2). Winds generally blow from west to east and

from north to south, or vice versa; however, winds

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from the west to east or from the north to south are

typically stronger compared to those in the opposite

direction. Winds from other directions (southwest,

northwest, northeast, and southeast) are considered to

have less strength compared to winds coming directly

from the west or north. The direction or movement of

the wind is always aligned with the movement of the

currents and waves. The challenge arises when the

boat’s course or destination is not aligned with the

wind direction, or is in opposition to the wind, current,

and waves. This is where the skillful control of the boat

(the sailor's dexterity) plays a critical role in navigating

the phinisi across the ocean.

Figure 2. The cardinal points serve as the primary

navigational guide in sailing.

The first action in starting the voyage is to find the

optimal position to capture the strongest winds,

allowing the boat to move more swiftly. This process is

locally referred to as Attunggeng and Akkarakkaji. In

seeking this position, careful consideration must be

given to the strength of the currents and waves

(Allinjai), ensuring that the boat maintains its course

towards its destination and is not carried off by the

currents and waves (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. The movement of the phinisi based on wind,

current, and wave direction.

In addition to controlling the direction of the boat's

movement, the sails must also be properly managed to

ensure they function optimally, allowing the boat to

move more efficiently. Figure 4a – 4c illustrates how

sail adjustments are made depending on whether the

wind comes from the front, back, or from the right or

left, either from the front or rear of the boat.

Figure 4a. Sail control when the wind comes from the side of

the boat.

Figure 4b. Sail control when the wind comes from the front

or back of the boat.

Figure 4c. Sail control when the wind comes from behind the

boat.

In addition to controlling the direction of the boat’s

movement, proper sail management is essential to

ensure optimal functionality, enabling the boat to

move more efficiently. Effective sail handling,

depending on the wind's direction, is a critical skill for

traditional sailors. Adjusting the sails according to

wind patterns ensures that the vessel maintains its

speed and course, even in complex maritime

environments. Research in traditional navigation

systems has shown that sail handling is key to

balancing boat stability and speed, especially in

unpredictable wind conditions [16].

Figure 4a-4c illustrates the various sail adjustments

that need to be made depending on whether the wind

originates from the front, back, or from the right or left

1109

side of the boat. Such maneuvers are especially

significant when sailing in open seas, where wind

directions frequently change, and the phinisi must be

able to adapt to maintain forward momentum. It is

important to note that the phinisi sailors rely heavily

on natural cues in addition to modern navigational

aids like compasses and maps. Traditional sailors have

long utilized the sun, sea color, wind, and wave

patterns for safe passage, a practice well-documented

in studies on indigenous maritime systems [17]. For

instance, the color of the sea is used to determine

depth, with black waters indicating depths greater

than 500 meters, blue signalling moderate depths (30–

500 meters), and gray suggesting shallow waters (<30

meters).

Moreover, phinisi sailors categorize currents and

waves into three types: (1) Small Currents and Waves

that occur during the transitional seasons between

monsoons; (2) Medium Currents and Waves that arise

2–5 days after strong winds begin; and (3) Large

Currents and Waves, also known as Arus dan Ombak

Tua, which are most dangerous during the western and

eastern monsoon seasons [5]. Similarly, wind patterns

are classified into three types based on their impact on

navigation: (1) Normal Winds (Angin Biasa), which

pose no threat; (2) Moderate Winds (Angin Tengah),

which create slightly darker patches on the sea surface;

and (3) Dangerous Winds (Angin Berbahaya), which

appear as fog-like conditions on the water’s surface

before striking [6].

At night, traditional navigators rely on stars,

lightning, sounds, and smells to guide their voyage.

Stars such as Bintang Babi (7:00 PM) indicate west,

while Bintang Besar (4:00 AM) signals east. Lightning

provides additional navigation cues, with vertical

strikes suggesting the presence of a large island, while

horizontal lightning indicates smaller islands or reefs

[17]. Sounds like the swishing of water or the “tak-tak-

tak” of coral under the boat are also vital indicators of

proximity to land or shallow waters, requiring

immediate course adjustments to avoid danger [3].

Unlike modern ships that rely on advanced

technology such as GPS, satellite navigation, and radar

systems, phinisi sailors depend on these ancient

knowledge systems, which have been passed down

through generations and are invaluable for navigating

Indonesia’s complex maritime landscape [3], [5]. The

resilience and precision of these indigenous techniques

have garnered academic interest, highlighting their

relevance even in the era of modern navigation.

3.3 Post-Sailing Phase

After approximately nine months of sailing each year,

the sailors return to their homeland, Tanjung Bira, to

reunite with their families and rest their boats for a

period of about three to four months. This period is

crucial for both the physical restoration of the boats

and the social lives of the sailors and their families.

− Resting and Maintaining the Boats

Upon returning from their long voyages, the phinisi

boats are typically beached along the coastline,

where they are positioned on wooden stands to

prevent them from touching the seawater. During

field interviews with the local boatbuilders, it was

noted that this practice, called sanggah perahu, is

essential to allow the wood to dry and prevent

further deterioration from constant exposure to

moisture. Additionally, roofs made of palm leaves

or tarpaulins are placed over the boats to shield

them from sunlight and rain, both of which can

accelerate the decay of the boat’s structure.

According to one senior boatbuilder, Pak Ridwan,

who has been repairing phinisi boats for over 40

years, “We have seen boats last for more than 30

years because of these practices. Without properly

resting the boats during the off-season, the wood

would rot much faster, and repairs would be

costly.” Research supports the importance of dry-

docking practices in extending the lifespan of

wooden vessels, as moisture and prolonged sun

exposure are leading causes of structural damage in

traditional boats.

− Pre-Departure Renovation and Repairs

One month before the next sailing season,

significant repairs and maintenance are carried out

on the boats. The primary focus is on renovating the

hull and ensuring that the boat remains waterproof.

According to field observations, this process

involves replacing damaged or rotten wooden

planks with new ones, repainting the hull to seal

any cracks, and replacing essential components

such as ropes and sails. Sail replacement is

particularly important, as both the size and material

of the sails directly impact the boat’s speed and

manoeuvrability. Interviews with sailors revealed

that they prefer using thicker cloth sails for longer

voyages, as these are more durable in harsh weather

conditions.

Pak Yusuf, a master sailor from Tanjung Bira,

explained, “Before each new season, we always

inspect every part of the boat, especially the hull

and sails. Any weak part could mean disaster at

sea.” This meticulous approach to boat preparation

aligns with the findings of maritime studies, which

emphasize the role of preventive maintenance in

ensuring the safety and longevity of seafaring

vessels. Sailors often reported that the preparation

phase could take up to a month, depending on the

extent of repairs required. Younger members of the

community assist in these repairs, learning the craft

from their elders as part of the intergenerational

transmission of maritime knowledge.

− Social and Cultural Activities

While the boats are being rested and repaired, the

sailors and their families engage in significant social

and cultural activities. During field observations, it

was noted that many sailors used this time to

renovate their homes. Local materials such as

bamboo, palm leaves, and timber are used to repair

or extend their houses, often with the help of

neighbours in a communal effort known as gotong

royong. Additionally, the post-sailing period is

commonly referred to as the “wedding season” in

Tanjung Bira. Interviews with local families

revealed that weddings are strategically planned

during this time to coincide with the sailors' return,

allowing for large family gatherings.

During one such ceremony observed in November

2023, over 200 guests from neighbouring villages

attended the wedding of a sailor’s daughter. The

ceremony reflected the close-knit nature of the

community, where marriages between families help

to solidify kinship ties. As explained by Pak

1110

Ahmad, a village elder, “The ties between our

families are strengthened through marriage. It

ensures that our children carry on the traditions of

the sea and the values of our ancestors.” This

observation mirrors anthropological research that

highlights the importance of kinship in maritime

societies, where economic cooperation and social

bonds are essential for survival [16].

Moreover, the sailors often reported that these

months were a time for reconnecting with their

families after long periods at sea. Many sailors, such

as Pak Yusuf, expressed the sentiment that “after

months at sea, returning home is like returning to

another world, where family and community

become the focus of our lives again.” The weddings

and communal activities, observed during field

visits, serve as celebrations of the sailors' safe return

and are vital for maintaining social cohesion within

the community.

4 DISCUSSION

The results of this study reveal the complexity and

depth of Pa’lopian knowledge, a traditional maritime

system sustained by the seafarers of Tanjung Bira. This

indigenous navigation framework demonstrates a

sophisticated integration of environmental awareness,

spiritual belief, and technical maritime expertise,

forming a holistic system of knowledge transmission

and resilience. The ability of these seafarers to navigate

vast and unpredictable waters using only natural cues

such as wind direction, ocean currents, wave patterns,

star positions, and sea color illustrates a form of

ecologically grounded intelligence that parallels

scientific reasoning. These practices affirm what

Agrawal [21] describes as "situated knowledge"—

knowledge embedded within local environments and

acquired through long-term interaction with nature.

The role of spiritual and psychological preparation,

particularly embodied in the Bugis-Makassar seafaring

philosophy Kuallengi Tallanga na Toawalia ("Better to

Sink than to Return"), emphasizes the moral and

emotional commitment of the sailors to their journey.

This worldview is not symbolic alone; rather, it

strengthens cognitive resilience and social cohesion—

factors that are critical in high-risk maritime

environments. Rituals such as tolak bala prayers and

intimate ceremonies with family members before

departure serve as psychological anchoring practices

that align personal faith with collective duty. Similar

phenomena have been observed in other maritime

cultures, where spiritual beliefs and symbolic practices

play a central role in shaping navigational behavior

and reinforcing safety protocols [16], [19].

Furthermore, the technical aspect of Pa’lopian

knowledge is demonstrated through the sailors’ acute

ability to manipulate sails and adjust the vessel’s

position relative to complex and often changing marine

conditions. Their expertise in reading meteorological

indicators—such as wave height, current strength, or

wind classifications—exemplifies what Dekker [17]

refers to as “maritime tactility,” a bodily and sensory

skill developed through experience and transmitted

across generations. Notably, these sailors operate with

limited or no access to modern navigational tools such

as GPS, instead relying on cues from stars, sea color

gradients, and the sound of water against the hull—

methods that remain consistent with studies on

indigenous navigation practices globally [3], [22].

The post-sailing phase offers equally important

insights. The maintenance of vessels through dry-

docking practices like sanggah perahu, and seasonal

repairs prior to the next voyage, reflects a vernacular

form of maritime conservation rooted in deep

ecological understanding. These methods significantly

extend the lifespan of wooden boats and reflect best

practices in heritage-based maritime engineering [23].

Meanwhile, the return of sailors marks a seasonal shift

in village life, often coinciding with major social events

such as weddings. These gatherings function as

mechanisms for reinforcing kinship, redistributing

economic gains, and transmitting cultural knowledge

to younger generations, aligning with anthropological

theories that view knowledge as socially embedded

and relational [24].

Taken together, the Pa’lopian system illustrates a

multi-dimensional knowledge framework where

environmental perception, spiritual conviction,

technical acumen, and communal life intersect. As the

tourism industry in maritime Southeast Asia expands

and the challenges of marine sustainability intensify,

this study argues for the formal recognition of

indigenous maritime knowledge systems within

educational and policy frameworks. The proposed

development of a Community University for maritime

education represents an innovative step toward

integrating local wisdom into contemporary

knowledge infrastructures. Such integration is not only

an ethical imperative but also a pragmatic strategy for

ensuring the resilience of maritime cultures in the face

of globalization and ecological change [20], [25].

5 CONCLUSIONS

The indigenous maritime knowledge systems of the

Tanjung Bira community, particularly their mastery of

phinisi boat navigation, represent a profound

integration of local expertise with environmental

awareness. These systems, passed down through

generations, enable the sailors to navigate the

treacherous waters of Indonesia's archipelago using

natural cues such as winds, ocean currents, waves, and

celestial bodies. The Tanjung Bira sailors' philosophy

of "better to sink than to return" underscores the

cultural significance of meticulous preparation, both

technically and mentally, before setting sail. The pre-

sailing rituals, the technical adjustments made during

the journey, and the post-sailing practices highlight the

holistic approach these sailors take toward maritime

navigation.

In comparison to modern navigation systems,

which rely heavily on technology, the Tanjung Bira's

indigenous practices offer a sustainable and resilient

alternative that blends practical experience with

spiritual and cultural elements. This traditional

knowledge system not only supports the preservation

of cultural heritage but also offers valuable insights for

contemporary maritime education and tourism.

However, as modernization continues to marginalize

such knowledge systems, it becomes imperative to

recognize and integrate these indigenous practices into

1111

modern frameworks to ensure their survival and

continued relevance in the evolving maritime

landscape.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was funded by the Directorate of Research,

Technology, and Community Service (DRTPM) – Ministry of

Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the

Republic of Indonesia (BIMA DIKTI) under Contract No.

PFK: 00309/UN4.22/PT.01.03/2024. The authors gratefully

acknowledge this support.

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