689
1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to analyse the seafarers'
market, i.e. the relationship between supply and
demand of seafarers, and to identify the main factors
that make the profession attractive, looking in
particular at the main seafaring nations. The fact is that
interest in the seafaring profession is declining
worldwide, especially in the more developed
countries, but on the other hand there are exceptions.
Nations that have resisted global trend and still have
an above-average number of seafarers are worth
analysing in order to identify key factors based on their
examples and finally make some recommendations for
long-term sustainability. Accordingly, this paper will
provide an overview of supply and demand in recent
decades, the expected trend in terms of assessing the
development of the shipping industry, an analysis of
the main seafarer- supplying countries, and the
identification of the nations with the largest number of
seafarers per capita and the main reasons for this. From
the experiences of these countries, the most important
measures for the future attractiveness of the seafaring
profession may be derived.
Systematic monitoring of the seafarers' market has
been in place for more than 30 years [1], and the data
obtained and the associated analyses provide a very
good insight into the changes in the seafarers' market
and an assumption for the accuracy of future
projections of demand and supply. In addition to
Bimco, and their manpower reports every 5 years, an
annual report has been published by Drewry Manning
since 2008, which, like Bimco, covers topics such as the
global seafarer supply and demand, but also seafarers'
wages and employment terms, and other manning
The Review of the Global Seafarers Market
Z. Lušić & S. Galić
University of Split, Split, Croatia
ABSTRACT: About 90% of world trade is carried by ships and this trade would not be possible without well-
trained and experienced seafarers. There are currently over 100,000 merchant ships manned by almost 2 million
seafarers. The seafarers market has been characterized by a constant shortage of seafarers for years and as
maritime transport continues to grow, a further shortage, especially of officers, is expected in the coming years.
This paper provides an overview of the global seafarers market, the analyses of the number of seafarers, officers
and ratings, the most represented nationalities, trends and changes compared to previous analyses. Particular
attention is paid to the nations that dominate in terms of the number or proportion of the total population of
seafarers and why the seafaring profession is more attractive in some countries and less attractive in others. It
also identifies measures that could be taken to ensure that the seafaring profession remains attractive regardless
of the rise in living standards and the choice of shore-based jobs. The projections in this paper are based on known
statistics in the supply/demand of seafarers worldwide and estimates of the growth of the global shipping fleet,
including certain political and economic aspects in countries that dominate the seafarer supply chain.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 19
Number 2
June 2025
DOI: 10.12716/1001.19.02.40
690
issues [2]. It is also worth mentioning the seafarer
statistics in the EU from EMSA (European Maritime
Safety Agency) [3, 4, 5]. All these reports confirm a
persistent shortage of officers.
Determining the exact number of seafarers is quite
a challenge, as there is no standardised criterion for
compiling statistics. At the level of national statistics,
the number of valid licences is more meaningful, but
this does not necessarily correspond to the actual
number of seafarers. The monitoring of seafarers on the
international market, through temporary contracts and
especially outside national flags, makes things even
more difficult. For the purposes of this paper, the
primary Bimco statistics are used, which are at least
somewhat standardised and global and are the most
commonly used.
2 SUPPLY AND DEMAND FOR SEAFARERS
The global supply of seafarers and demand over the
last 30 years is shown in Table 1. The latest detailed
analysis by Bimco was produced for 2021, when the
global supply of seafarers was 857,540 officers and
1,035,180 and the demand was 883780 officers and
997540 ratings. The five countries with the largest
supply of seafarers were the Philippines, the Russian
Federation, Indonesia, China and India [6][7]. The
BIMCO report from 2021 also estimates that there will
be a need for an additional 90,000 officers by 2026
[8][7]. This confirms the earlier Bimco forecast from
2015, according to which the supply of officers in 2025
will be around 800,000 and the demand around 950,000
[9]. Nearly 60% of the global demand for officers is
estimated to be on board ship with around 40% being
ashore at any given time, and over 70% of the global
demand for ratings is on board ships at any given time.
Furthermore, the attractiveness of seafarers profession
is higher in the todays main supplying countries, while
it is declining in traditional shipping countries. [10]
Table 1. Suply and Demand, 1995-2021
Supply
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2021
408946
415389
446000
624000
774000
857540
824516
861666
721000
747000
873500
1035180
1233462
1277055
1167000
1371000
1647500
1892720
Demand
426916
445367
476000
637000
790500
883780
605654
612984
586000
747000
754500
997540
1032570
1058351
1062000
1384000
1545000
1881320
Differences (surplus/shortage)
-17970
-29978
-30000
-13000
-16500
-26240
+218862
+248682
+135000
/
+119000
+37640
+200892
+218704
+105000
-13000
+102500
+11400
Source: [9], [11], [12], [13]
According to Drewry reports, the officer availability
gap for 2023 has reach a deficit of about 9% of the
global pool, a significant increase from year before
when was 5% shortfall and the highest level since
Drewry first began analysing the seafarer market 17
years ago. The Drewry forecast similar deficit levels for
2023-2028 [14]. Demand for seafarers on the world
market is directly connected to the demand for the
vessels. As for last decades number of seafarers per
ship is mostly stabilized, increased demand for ship as
a rule results with an increased demand for seafarers.
More about the number of seafarers by nation in
Chapter 4.
3 WORLD MERCHANT FLEET
The world merchant fleet on the beginning of 2024
reach the number of around 109,000 vessels of at least
100 GT, or about 58,200 ships of at least 1,000 GT. Also
this fleet reached a carrying capacity of 2.35 billion
DWT, of which 71% accounted to tankers and bulk
carriers. [15] Regardless of various negative effects, the
world's merchant fleet has been growing continuously
since 1990 [16].The growth of the world merchant fleet
shows Figure 1.
In world fleet dominate small and medium size
ships, smaller of 25,000 GT (84 %), but in categories of
large and very large ships, above 25,000 GT, dominates
bulk carriers, tankers and container ships, with about
85 % (Table 2). [17]
Figure 1. World fleet by principal vessel type (mill. of DWT).
Note: Commercial ships of 100 GT and above. Source: [15]
Table 2. World fleet-total numbers of ships, by type and size
Ship type
Small1
Medium2
Large3
Very
large4
World
Bulk
279
3901
7103
1937
13220
10.4 %
Container
19
2409
1684
1624
5736
4.5 %
Fishing
20124
5806
4
1
25935
20.4 %
Gas tanker
34
1182
475
619
2310
1.8 %
General
4105
12181
288
0
16574
13.1 %
Offshore
2871
5097
122
319
8409
6.6 %
Oil &
chemical
1985
7513
2827
2291
14616
11.5 %
Other
tankers
448
776
16
0
1240
1.0 %
Passenger
4417
2945
299
205
7866
6.2 %
Ro-ro
cargo
1025
1111
553
277
2966
2.3 %
Service
3801
3810
38
8
7657
6.0 %
Specialized
8
287
63
9
367
0.3 %
Tugs
19131
920
0
0
20051
15.8 %
World
58247
47938
13472
7290
126947
100 %
1GT<500; 2500≤GT<25 000; 325 000≤GT<60 000; 4GT≥60 000 (for
2022.)
Source: [17]
Liberia, Panama and the Marshall Islands
represents the leading flags of registration but should
be emphasised that the country of the flag is not
necessarily connected to the nationality of the vessel’s
owner. China, Greece and Japan are major shipowners.
Table 3 shows the most dominant flags and counties of
real owners. [18]
691
Table 3. World merchant fleet-number of vessels
Flag of registration
Economy of
ownership
Panama
China
Liberia
Marshall
Isl.
Indonesia
Singapore
China,
Hong
Kong
SAR
World
China
855
5997
303
182
6
77
889
8839
Greece
426
0
1321
1171
2
19
11
4936
Japan
1914
0
308
278
8
187
46
4023
Singapore
278
7
298
175
85
1373
123
2813
Indonesia
24
5
6
6
2335
18
0
2458
Germany
31
0
499
60
1
80
15
2156
Norway
35
0
81
134
3
57
44
1918
China,
Hong Kong
SAR
420
32
87
65
3
37
842
1842
Russia
46
0
89
0
0
2
3
1841
Turkiye
372
0
139
150
0
11
8
1766
World
6888
6098
4766
4086
2501
2453
2251
56991
Note: Commercial ships of 1,000 GT and above, on the beginning of
2023.
Source: [18] based on UNCTADstat, 2023 & Clarksons Research
Statistics show that there has been a steady growth
in the world's merchant fleet for a long time. Current
estimates are that this growth will continue in the
coming years.
Figure 2. Total goods loaded (mil. metric tons). Source: [19]
The world trade volume from 2005 until 2021
increased by around 49% (Unctad) while number of
seafares in that period increased for around 22% [20].
Figure 2 shows the forecast of total goods loaded in
mil. metric tons. With the positive trend of world goods
traffic it is real to expect positive trend of number of a
ships and the number of seafarers as well.
4 THE LARGEST SEAFARER SUPPLY COUNTRIES
According to the latest comprehensive Bimco report
(2021) the five largest seafarer-supplying countries are
Philippines, Russian Federation, Indonesia, China, and
India, Table 4 [6][7]. This is the top five nations, both
for officers and ratings.
Table 4. Estimated five largest seafarer supply countries-
2021
For all seafarers
Officers
Ratings
1
Philippines (13.3%)
Philippines (9.5%)
Philippines (16.5%)
2
Russian Federation
(10.5%)
Russian Federation (8.4%)
Russian Federation
(12.2%)
3
Indonesia (7.6%)
China (8.1%)
Indonesia (8.9%)
4
China (7.1%)
India (6.8%)
China (6.3%)
5
India (6.0%)
Indonesia (6.0%)
India (5.3%)
Source: [21]
Compared to the 2015 report, it is worth noting an
increase in the share of seafarers from Russia, a decline
in share of Chinese seafarers, and an increase in the
share of ratings from India. Seafarers from the
Philippines, apart from being the most numerous, have
minimally changed their shares compared to 2015,
Table 5 [21].
Table 5. Estimated five largest seafarer supply countries-
2015.
For all seafarers
Officers
Ratings
1
China (14.8%)
China (13.1%)
Philippines (16.4%)
2
Philippines (13.1%)
Philippines (9.4%)
China (16.3%)
3
Indonesia (8.7%)
India (9.0%)
Indonesia (10.6%)
4
Russian Federation
(5.9%)
Indonesia (6.6%)
Russian Federation
(5.6%)
5
India (5.2%)
Russian Federation (6.2%)
Ukraine (3.4%)
Source: [21]
The countries of the Asia-Pacific region are the main
suppliers of ship crews, and have been so for more than
30 years. For example, in 1995, the Philippines, China,
India and Indonesia accounted for about 36% of the
total number of seafarers [13], which is not far from
today's share. The number of Filipino seafarers fell
slightly (from 20% in 1995 to today's 13%), while the
others slightly increased their shares. Nations that once
had considerable stakes, such as the USA, Japan, Korea,
Turkey, Great Britain, are continuously losing
importance [22].
Valuable statistics on the seafarer market are also
provided by the European Union, for its member
states. EU statistics gives slightly bigger numbers
compared to Bimco statistics, and the reason is that EU
count holders of the valid certificates, not actual work
on board. Figure 3 shows the EU nations that provide
the largest number of masters and officers, based on
valid certificates.
In 2022 the total number of masters and officers
with valid CoCs (CoC-Certificate of Competency) at
EU level was 171,539, of which around 59% is deck
department and 40% engine department. Female
masters and officers participate only with around 2.5%.
The total number of ratings holding valid CoPs (CoP-
Certificate of Proficiency) in 2022 in the EU member
states was 77,322 with 5.4% of them entitled to serve in
both the deck and the engine department. Top five
countries in 2022 were (masters and oficers): Poland
(18,036), Norway (17,563), Greece (15,287), Croatia
(14,659) and Romania (14428). For ratings, the top five
were: Poland (15,070), Norway (11,298), Spain (7,929),
Italy (7,602) and Croatia (6,106) [3]. It can be concluded
that of all European countries, todays the Poland
provides the most seafarers, both officers and crew.
Figure 3. Masters and officers from EU Member States.
Source: [3][4][5]
The top five non EU Countries having their CoCs
recognised by EU Member States are the Philippines,
Ukraine, the Russian Federation, India and Turkiye.
Their share is around 34% (in 2022) of all of masters and
officers available for service on ships flying the flag of
EU Member States, while in 2017 was 26%. These five
non-EU countries have maintained their leading
positions over the past nine years. As for EU members,
692
in the same period the top five places were shared by
nine member states. The percentage of EU nationals
(masters and officers) on real board the EU fleet, in
2022, was estimated to 26%. [3]
In 2023 Bimco confirmed that the Philippines is the
most important country for the supply of seafarers,
with around 350,000 ratings and 200,000 officers. China
is in second place, with 120,000 ratings and 130,000
officers, followed by India, Indonesia and Russia [23].
So we can say that these 5 nations maintain their
position as most important suppliers of seafarers.
When we talk about the absolute number of
seafarers, it should be emphasised that the national
statistics are quite different, usually higher. One of the
reasons for this is the fact that some nations are less
represented on the international market; others are
related to data collection, which differs from country to
country, as already mentioned. According to the
Marina Statistical Report, in 2023, there were around
720,000 seafarers in the Philippines with a valid
Seafarer's identity card and Record Book, or around 1.3
million seafarers with valid Seafarer's identification
documents. The total number of officers with valid
licences was 179,447. [24]
Around 1.9 million seafarers are registered in
China, around 540,000 have valid certificates of
competency and around 380,000 are on international
voyages [7]
Indonesia has almost 1.2 million seafarers [25],
India around 280,000, Russia over 110,000 [23].
5 THE MOST MARITIME COUNTRIES
If we look at the total number of seafarers, as
mentioned earlier, the top five countries are:
Philippines, China, Indonesia, India and the Russian
Federation both in terms of masters and officers and
ratings. These are very populous countries with low or
near-low GDP, with marine tradition, and as such they
have already proven to be major suppliers of manning
and are expected to remain so. However, what does it
look like when we look at the number of seafarers of a
certain nationality compared to the population of the
respective countries? According to the UN report [21],
estimated by the Bimco/ICS based on estimates of
seafarers demand, the top five maritime nations
according to the ratio of seafarers to population are as
follows: Croatia, Panama, Norway, Latvia, Greece and
Bulgaria, as far as masters and officers are concerned.
In terms of ratings, the top six countries are Panama,
Croatia, Philippines, Latvia Bulgaria and Norway
(Table 6). It is interesting that the European countries
predominate. Turkiye, Ukraine and the Russian
Federation are not on the list of EU countries, although
they could also be added to this group.
Table 6. Six largest seafarer countries by seafarers to
population ratio (per mill.)-2021
For all seafarers
Master & Off.
Ratings
1
Panama (5627)
Croatia (3709)
Panama (2489)
2
Croatia (5319)
Panama (3138)
Croatia (1610
3
Latvia (4309)
Norway (2965)
Philippines (1460)
4
Norway (4146)
Latvia (2640)
Latvia (1369)
5
Bulgaria (3540)
Greece (2613)
Bulgaria (1337)
6
Greece (2945)
Bulgaria (2250)
Norway (1181)
Source: [21]
It should also be noted that Panama is a flag of
convenience, so it is very difficult to separate out from
the total mass of seafarers under the Panamanian flag
how many are actually of Panamanian nationality.
Figure 4 shows the average number of seafarers per
thousand inhabitants of the respective country, also
and the comparison with the population and GDP of
the country.
Figure 4. The number of seafarers of a certain nationality per
country population. Source: Authors, based on [21][26]
If Bimco statistics are compared with EU statistics,
similar results are obtained (Figure 5.). There are minor
fluctuations in the absolute numbers of seafarers, but
the leading nations are the same as those already
mentioned.
Figure 5. The number of seafarers of a EU contries nationality
per country population, including Turkyie, Ukraine and
Russia. Source: Authors, based on [3][23]
From the analysis obtained, it can be concluded that
a higher GDP is associated with a low percentage of
seafarers or a low interest in the profession, with the
exception of some countries, notably Norway. Looking
only at masters and officers, countries with a medium-
low GDP predominate, such as Croatia, Panama,
Greece, Bulgaria, Latvia, Ukraine, besides the
aforementioned Norway which has an extremely high
GDP. In terms of ratings, in addition to those already
mentioned nations, there is also the Philippines. India
and China, the two main suppliers of crews, besides the
Philippines, are countries that have a low average
numbers per capita. In general, this means that the
large number of seafarers in these countries is
primarily a result of their large populations. In the
context of the popularisation of the seafaring
profession, whose attractiveness is definitely
decreasing, especially for ratings, it is certainly
important to analyse why there is still an above-
average interest in some countries with medium or
high GDP.
693
6 MEASURES TO IMPROVE SEAFARERS SUPPLY
6.1 The factors of influence
The factors that influence the availability of seafarers
are numerous and it is difficult to generally single out
some, especially as they influence changes over time.
In any case, it is worth highlighting the factors that
somehow stand out in most of the previous analyses.
A 2012 study of 40,000 seafarers found that the most
important factor for staying at sea for 76% of all
respondents was salary [27]. Furthermore, another
study carried out by Mitroussi, K. and Chang, C.J.
emphasizes six motivational factors: the salary,
opportunity to learn novel skills, personal
development and improvement, the possibility of
promotion and friendly working environment [28]. In
paper Thomas et al, which analyze the impact of
seafarers work on family life, pointing out efforts that
should be made to make life of seafarers to be more
bearable, considering life separated from family [29]:
− shorter trips (if possible up to four months),
− paid leave of appropriate duration,
− employment based on a permanent contract,
− training time outside of leave,
− possibility of boarding a family,
− availability of cheap communications,
− better contact between seafarers' families and
seafarers' employers.
The traditional great maritime nations no longer
exist, at least not in the sense that the fleet is
consolidated at national level, its management as well
as the national crews. Shipping has long since become
global, so widely dispersed that at first glance it is
impossible to link a ship to its actual owners or
managers. Seafarers are also recruited worldwide,
mostly through intermediaries at the mercy of the
global labour market, where the search for cheap
labour is a priority. Under these circumstances, it
becomes extremely difficult to find and retain good
crews. Generally speaking, in order to improve the
lives of seafarers on board or increase the attractiveness
of the profession, the influence of the countries from
which the seafarers come and the companies that
employ them is crucial. Countries that do not have
their own fleet are in a more difficult position,
especially if the standard of living and quality of life
are above average. Their efforts to promote
employment in the maritime sector are limited. Also
we should bear in mind that the interests of companies
and the pursuit of profit do not go hand in hand with
the welfare of seafarers. According to Wang and Yeo
(2016), the recruitment of seafarers for shipping
companies depends mainly on the cost of crewing, as
this cost is one of the highest of all fixed costs. The same
authors also provide a list of factors that influence the
decision-making process for seafarers employment,
and first on the list is the overall coast of the crew,
followed by the quality of seafarers' education and
training, cross-cultural management skills, the ability
to procure well-trained seafarers and loyalty to
shipping companies [30].
Shipowners today favour the two types of indirect
recruitment methods, using crewing companies or
third-party ship management companies, although
they are aware that this practise leads to quality and
performance problems and can lead to undue
exploitation of seafarers. This is very common in
countries such as the Philippines [31]. The same
authors [31] emphasise that the abandonment of the
seafaring profession is due to lack of promotion
opportunities, increasing demand for well-paid shore-
based jobs, poor working conditions on board,
increased workload, stress, loneliness, isolation,
cultural diversity, generational issues, poor human
resource practices, unfair contracts, etc. In view of all
this, seafarers from East and Southeast Asian countries
are the first choice, especially from the Philippines,
China and Indonesia, followed by Vietnam and
Myanmar. In addition to the low labour costs, maritime
tradition and large population, seafarers from these
countries are highly disciplined, dedicated and loyal
[22]. As mentioned earlier, the Philippines is now the
main supplier of seafarers in the world, and has been
for many years. The Philippines is a traditional
seafaring country, but what additionally characterises
Filipino seafarers are: good command of English,
quality education and training, cultural proclivity
(orientation towards hard work, discipline, strong
family ties, adaptability, motivation, etc.), cost
competitiveness. Possible disadvantages include
cultural differences and language barriers compared to
crews from other nations, as well as the need for
constant development to remain competitive. [32]
In their analysis of Korean-flagged ships, Wang and
Yeo conclude that Filipinos are the best foreign
seafarers, although they are more expensive compared
to other countries such as Myanmar, Vietnam and
Indonesia. The authors emphasise that Filipinos are
well educated and trained, have above average
communication skills and English language
proficiency, and as a nation generally provide a reliable
and adaptable market for crew members. As for the
other nations, while Myanmar is cheaper and has
exceptional loyalty, it cannot provide sufficient and
stable numbers of seafarers, especially officers, as a
supply country. Indonesia has a shortage of ship
officers and seafarers from this country are prone to
cultural and religious conflicts with other nations.
China has the potential to become the largest supplier
of seafarers, but seafarers still have problems with the
English language and labour costs are also rising. [30]
An analysis of the supply and demand for seafarers
in recent decades shows that, in the context of the
factors influencing supply and demand, the market for
masters and officers should be separated from that of
ratings. We can safely say that the ratings market is
simpler to analyse and generally corresponds to what
has already been said about the overall seafarer
market. This is because the traditional maritime
countries can no longer compete with countries such as
the Philippines, China, Indonesia and India in terms of
labour costs, number of seafarers, long-term supply
and other segments. As far as the officers market is
concerned, the situation is different. A significant
percentage still consists of seafarers from traditional
maritime countries, i.e. countries with a higher GDP.
Russia and Ukraine certainly stand out as countries
with a significant share of the seafarers, but their large
share is due to the political situation and current
relations in the region, as well as the question of how
long they can be counted on in the long term. Due to
the ongoing war, the numbers of new seafarers from
Russia and Ukraine is likely to be limited for some
694
time, and many experienced crews are also returning
home to join the military [14]. When we look at the
percentage of seafarers, particularly officers, in the
population, it is interesting to note that the top five in
this segment are not among the top five largest
suppliers. The largest maritime nations according to
this criterion are Panama, Croatia, Latvia, Norway,
Bulgaria and Geece. Why there is so much interest in
the seafaring profession in these countries is difficult to
answer. The cost of labour and the quality of life in the
country you come from certainly have an influence, but
it is mainly something else, namely tradition, but also
the guidance of the younger generations and the
creation of a positive environment. Take Croatia, for
example. The vast majority of seafarers come from the
coastal area, whose area and population are less than
half of the entire country and where the standard of
living is even higher. The national merchant fleet no
longer exists, whereas it used to be significant, and the
seafarers are on the global labour market, with national
incentive measures being minimal. But despite all this,
the number of officers has remained within the limits
of what it was when the national fleet was numerous,
until the early 1990s. Of course, the number of ratings
has decreased significantly, and the main reason for
this is the price of labour. Therefore, we can safely say
that regarding ship officers market, the tradition in
Croatia has a greater influence than the standard of
living and average GDP. Certainly, there is still a
strong education system whose capacity exceeds
demand. The main advantage of Croatian seafarers is
their adequate education and training, but also, the
opportunity of gaining experience in the world's most
successful companies and on ships with advanced
technologies. Labour costs for Croatian seafarers are
not too high and wages are in the middle of the world
average. Their competitiveness is jeopardised by
seafarers from countries that provide a large supply of
labour (the Philippines and the Far East), by
insufficient adaptation of Croatian seafarers and the
Croatian education and administration system, and
slow adaptation of the Croatian education and
administration system to constant changes in the world
seafarers market [33].
A good example of how it is possible to maintain
interest in the maritime profession is Norway, a
country with an extremely high GDP and average
wages that are well above the global and European
average. Norway is the fifth largest among the world's
maritime nations, ranked by value [34], has a strong
and numerous national fleet, but also a whole series of
measures that keep the maritime occupation attractive,
from high incomes, benefits, first employment, etc.
Greece is also a strong traditional maritime country,
with a significant fleet; it is the second largest ship
owner in the world [18]. However, Greece generally
has major problems in retaining seafarers, regardless of
the incentive policy. Between 1978 and 2000, the
number of seafarers fell by 81%. The reasons for the
decline in popularity can be found the lack of
information about the profession itself, in
discouragement on the part of the family, in the
outdated infrastructure and equipment in education
and in training that has fallen out of trend, in
considering the maritime profession as a reserve in
case of financial insecurity, in the increased job
opportunities on land, etc. [35].
6.2 The future of the global seafarers market and the
improvement of the attractiveness of the profession
In addition to ensuring a sufficient number of
seafarers, it is also extremely important to maintain
their quality. The future of the global seafarers market
will be challenging. A continued shortage of qualified
seafarers can be expected, as well as adapting to the
future demands of specialisation, digitalisation and
automation [36]. In terms of the impact of technology
on seafarers and their future work, the WMU study
distinguishes four main categories that should be
considered to keep them at the cutting edge of
technology: the technology itself, safety and health,
required skills and training [37]. The study also states
that seafarers must be adequately trained to safely use
the new devices and technologies that are coming. In
addition, this must be supported by a paid
familiarisation period during which seafarers are
released from their normal duties and can concentrate
on the learning taking place. The skills and
competences required of seafarers are changing due to
the automation of tasks which affect the division of
labour between man and machine. This means that it is
not only the seafarers' jobs that are changing, but also
the work processes and tasks, as well as the values in
the workplace. The most important findings can be
summarised [37]:
− for potential seafarers supply count on Africa, the
Americas and the Pacific/Oceania;
− In the future, jobs in the shipping industry will
increasingly be based on land, even partially or
fully automated;
− Soft skills remain crucial for future seafarers;
− Major skills gaps in digital and systems analysis
skills as well as technical skills related to new
technologies;
− New jobs and new careers will require constant up
skilling and lifelong learning,
− The formal education system will be just as
important for acquiring new knowledge and skills
or adapting to new technical and technological
solutions as the non-formal education system;
− It is expected that the market for seafarers will bring
some new values in the future, that the jobs will be
more specialised, less male oriented, digitally
oriented, work-life better balanced, etc.;
The DNV study The Future of seafarers 2030
confirms that digitalization and decarbonisation are
the key transformational drivers that will reshape
shipping in this decade and beyond, and that seafarers
will play a crucial role in this process. To increase the
attractiveness of jobs for seafarers, the study
emphasises better pay and career development.
Particularly insightful is the recommendation that
shipowners, operators and managers should take
advantage of seafarers' unique skills and offer them
opportunities for complementary shore-based roles,
such as working in vessel control centres and
monitoring facilities, which are expected to be
increasingly in demand. [38]:
A Study on the Future Global Supply and Demand
of seafarers from Japan International Transport
Institute and The Nippon Foundation, within which
the questionnaire to students of maritime universities
on attraction of seafarers are given, among six
countries (India, Philippines, Croatia, Norway, R.
Korea, Japan), gave the following results [39]:
695
− Promoting the importance and attractiveness of
maritime life and shipping from an early age is one
of the most important ways to attract future
generations of seafarers. A result of the
questionnaire shows that the ratio of students who
have had knowledge of seafarers and shipping
prior to entering their universities is only 32.7%;
− 72.6% of students wanted to become seafarers
before enrolling at university, but 20.3% of them
changed their mind after enrolment;
− Most students from major seafarer supplying
countries hoped to be employed in shipping
companies, primarily international ones;
− As far as the positive image of seafarers is
concerned, the above-average salaries, great
responsibility and personal satisfaction should be
emphasised. As for the negative image, the
inconveniences of working on board should be
emphasised, such as the lack of freedom and the
rotation without the usual annual leave;
− Many students advice female students not to enroll
in maritime faculties due to the lack of job
opportunities, difficult working conditions on
board, and the long duration of stay on board;
− Half of the students hope to find a job on the
mainland later on;
− The students see the solution to making the
seafaring profession attractive in improving
working conditions, starting with wages,
improving the image of seafarers and supporting
seafarers ashore with appropriate social and
medical benefits, both for them and their families.
7 DISCUSSION
Based on the above, it can be said without a doubt that
the Philippines, China, India and Indonesia are the
most important supplier countries for seafarers today.
And we can assume that this will also be the case in the
near future. The reasons for this are low labour costs,
loyalty, tradition, the willingness to constantly
improve and adapt to new challenges, but also the
ability of these nations to ensure a continuous supply
of a large number of seafarers.
A considerable number of seafarers, especially
officers, come from countries such as Russia, Ukraine,
Poland, Greece, Turkey, Croatia, Norway, Bulgaria,
etc. The question is whether these countries will be able
to maintain these shares or whether they will simply
disappear from the list. This applies in particular to
countries that do not have a significant fleet of their
own but employ seafarers on the international market.
To make this assessment, it is of course necessary to
know what has led people from these countries to take
an interest in this profession in the first place, or what
has caused the formerly major seafaring nations to
disappear from the list of the more important ones. In
this context, the most important factors discussed in
the previous chapter can be emphasised:
− the salary in relation to the standard of living of the
nation from which the person comes,
− the general situation in the country from which the
person comes, employment opportunities, political
situation, wars and unrest,
− the promotion of seafaring professions,
− tradition,
− the capacities of educational institutions when it
comes to officers,
− company benefits and policies,
− protection of seafarers, legal and other,
− measures to facilitate life on board, flexible
rotations, etc.
In all the above analyses of the reasons for choosing
or giving up a seafaring profession, the salary, or rather
the price of the work always comes first. However,
practical examples confirm that this is not always the
case. Ship owners do not always opt for the cheapest
labour, nor is salary always the deciding factor. Smaller
countries can serve as an example, such as Croatia,
which does not have a large international fleet, but has
a disproportionately large number of officers on the
international market. There is also Norway, a country
with a high income economy but which nevertheless
maintains a respective number of seafarers. A broad
maritime environment, tradition and heritage, a strong
own fleet, a favourable tax system, ocean based
industry, a positive government policy, etc. contribute
to the attractiveness of the seafaring profession.[40]
It is clear that the examples of some countries,
particularly those with a large number of seafarers per
capita, can be utilised for future seafarer recruitment
policies both locally and globally. In the context of the
ratings, the price of labour is of course still of central
importance, but other criteria are just as important for
the officer cadre.
Finally, as far as the recommendations for the
promotion of the seafaring profession, as well as for
remaining on board once employed, we can
summarize them as follows:
− early recruitments and dissemination of
information,
− good and stable wages, with permanent
employment,
− continuous improvements of education and
training, with use of sophisticated tools, on board
and off board,
− greater female participation,
− better cooperation between educational institutions
and shipping companies,
− easy getting first employment,
− better contracts and welfare,
− more flexible rotation,
− easy and affordable communication with families,
− better legal protection, social benefits, and
protection in general (in case of wars, piracy,
pandemic, smuggling, etc.).
8 CONCLUSIONS
The seafarers market has had an almost constant
shortage for the past few decades, and a similar trend
is expected in the years to come. Increased demand
relative to supply is particularly characteristic of
masters and officers. The main reason for this is the
constant increase in world maritime traffic, i.e. number
of ships, and the inability of the labor market to keep
up with these changes.
Given the specificity of the maritime profession, the
modern environment, the tendency to reduce crew
costs, etc., it is quite understandable that the largest
suppliers of ship crews come from countries with
696
relatively cheap labor, especially when it comes to
ratings. The market for cheap labor is quite large, and
training of ratings is not that demanding or time-
consuming. Of course, problems and challenges exist,
but they are certainly smaller compared to the officer
cadre. In accordance with this, the recruitment of
ratings from countries with cheap labor is to be
expected in the future, not at any price, but in countries
cheap enough, loyal, and capable enough to acquire
minimal skills. As for masters and officers, the
situation is somewhat different. The increased demand
in recent years indicates that the market of the main
supplier countries is not enough to meet the demand,
which gives room to other nations, primarily
traditional maritime countries and former great
maritime powers. Training of officers is significantly
longer and more demanding, requires significant
financial investments, and also requires appropriate
prerequisites for the applicant, from physical to social
and intellectual, which is a major challenge for
countries with cheap labor. On the other hand,
traditional maritime countries generally have a decline
in interest in maritime professions, caused primarily by
rising standards on land, well-paid jobs on shore, and
the challenging but also dangerous environment of
living and working on board a ship that requires
significant sacrifices.
In the context of measures to popularize the
seafarer’s profession, it is certainly worth emulating
those countries that have managed to maintain interest
in this profession. There is no general recipe, but it
should certainly start from maintaining the capacity of
national fleets, improving legal protection and social
status, improving work flexibility, providing benefits,
and other measures that encourage the profession and
ensure rights as in all other national workplaces. Of
course, young students and cadets should be able to
quickly and easily gain their first experiences.
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