229

1 INTRODUCTION

The biggest problem in offshore (open-pit) mining is

transport from great depths to the surface. Despite

many studies [1,8,21,25,26,27], the solutions used so

far, based on the continuareline bucket (CLB) method,

the hydraulic pumping (HP) method or the air-lift

pumping (ALP) method, are far from ideal. First of all,

they are energy-intensive and thus generate high costs,

hence the search for less costly methods. It is also

important that operation and transportation be done in

an environmentally friendly manner.

In our research, we have addressed the problem of

transporting dredged material from the seabed to the

surface and decided to look at the problem from the

perspective of a new energy source. The idea is based

on the concept of using the phase transition of a solid

or liquid into a gaseous state or a solid into a liquid as

a source of energy for transportation from the seabed

[3-6,9-20].

Such were the beginnings, but as our research work

progressed, we began to look at the problem a little

differently. Therefore, in this article, we will

synthetically review our scientific achievements that

do not necessarily follow a temporal research

chronology. The problem is transport from great

depths and it is cyclic, so we have adopted the concept

of operation of the transport module as a separate area

where, among other things, we can realize the idea

based on the applications of phase transition of a solid

or liquid into a gaseous state or a solid into a liquid as

a source of energy for transport from the seabed.

An Innovative Approach to the Problem

of Transporting Spoil from Great Depths in Deep-Sea

Mining

W. Filipek, K. Broda & B. Tora

AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland

ABSTRACT: The article presents an innovative approach to one of the key challenges in offshore mining –

transporting ore from the seabed to the surface. Traditional methods, such as CLB (with continuareline bucket),

HP (hydraulic pumping), ALP (air-lift pumping) or hybrid techniques, are associated with high energy

consumption and high operating and environmental costs. To adddress these limitations, the authors propose an

alternative solution based on the use of physicochemical phenomena, which significantly reduces energy

consumption.

The starting point is the analysis of basic physical principles, such as potential energy or the buoyancy principle,

in the context of the aquatic environment and high pressure conditions at great depths. The authors consider the

use of the natural properties of the working medium as a source of power for the ascent process, as well as the

potential for energy recovery, which enhances the energy balance and the transport system’s efficiency.

The article presents the results of theoretical and simulation studies, which have laid foundation for numerous

patents and scientific publications. The authors emphasize the practical potential of the proposed solutions,

indicating at the same time the need for further work on their implementation in real-world conditions.

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 19

Number 1

March 2025

DOI: 10.12716/1001.19.01.26

230

The principle of the transport module is based on

the change in the average density of the entire module,

which is inextricably linked to the buoyancy force

acting on the submerged body [23,24]. In the case

where the average density of the module is greater than

that of the surrounding medium, the buoyancy force is

less than the weight of the body and sinking (sinking)

occurs, while in the opposite case the buoyancy force is

greater than the weight of the body and the body rises.

A special case is when the average density of the

module is equal to the density of the surrounding

medium, then the buoyancy force is equal to the weight

of the body, and the body remains in “motionlessness”

floating in the fluid.

The change in the average density of an object

immersed in a given medium is currently achieved in

two ways. The first, used in submarines, is based on the

use of so-called ballast tanks, which are filled with

water or emptied with compressed air as needed. This

method is used when the depth of submersion is not

great and does not exceed several hundred meters.

Below this depth, the second method is used for

technical reasons. It consists in submerging with

ballast, and then, in order to surface, the ballast must

be dumped by which it is irretrievably lost settling on

the bottom of the water body under study. A separate

approach is unmanned underwater vehicles, whose

average density of an object submerged in a given

medium is almost equal to the density of the

surrounding medium. However, these objects are

mainly used for research and not for transporting

dredged material from the seabed on an industrial

scale.

2 CONCEPT OF THE TRANSPORT MODULE.

The idea of using phase transition as a source of energy

for transport in an aquatic environment [12] is shown

in Figure 1. It shows the two most important stages of

the transport module's operation, namely: sinking to

the bottom and rising to the surface. As mentioned

earlier, the process of sinking to the bottom can be

carried out only if the density ρm of the transport

module - equal to the density ρs of the substance with

volume Vs before the phase transition, assuming that

we neglect the mass of the structure - is greater than the

density 𝜌

𝐻

𝑂

of the water surrounding the transport

module. On the other hand, ascent can be realized only

if the density ρm will be less than the density 𝜌

𝐻

𝑂

. It was

assumed that the subscript “α” next to the density and

volume symbol refers to the substance that has

undergone a phase transition, which was previously,

before the transition, marked with the subscript “s”. At

this stage of the presentation of the concept of using

phase transformation as a source of energy for

transport in the aquatic environment, we will not go

into detail about what the substance or mixture of

substances is and what physical and chemical

processes it undergoes during the aforementioned

phase transition.

It should be mentioned that the initial state of the

processes taking place inside the transport module to

change the average density ρm of the object under

consideration is denoted by the subscript “s” and the

final state is denoted by the subscript “α”. The

subscript “u” next to the symbol for density and

volume refers to the excavated material (in the broad

sense of the term) that the module transports from the

seabed toward the surface. We can neglect the density

of the transport module's structure because it is

constant during both descent and ascent, so there is no

problem in balancing it with selected floats of

appropriate density so that its effect on the total density

ρm of the transport module can be neglected.

Figure 1. The concept of using phase transition as a source of

energy for transport from the seabed [9].

An interesting concept we studied ex situ was an

autonomous transport module [6,13-18,] using phase

transition as an energy source for transport in an

aquatic environment. The object was to submerge, wait

a preset amount of time and automatically surface with

the load. The control process of the module was carried

out only by physical and chemical processes without

the involvement of sensors or additional electrical or

electronic control systems.

3 FACTORS DETERMINING THE OPERATION OF

THE TRANSPORT MODULE.

In order for the proposed transport method to be

competitive with current solutions, it must be

characterized by lower energy intensity. The minimum

energy required to move a mass between two points in

a gravitational field is determined by the potential

energy ΔEp, or work W1-2 (Figure 2). It is this quantity

that we have taken as a reference point in our

considerations. Taking the concept of free ascent of a

body under the influence of a change in the average

density ρm of the object under consideration (that is, the

transport module), it is necessary to determine what

work W1-2 must be done by the working medium, for

example, a gas (denoted by the subscript α), in order

for the value of the buoyancy force to be greater than

the weight of the device.

Figure 2, Diagram explaining how to determine the energy

required for the free ascent of the transport module.

231

Equation (1)















  









−−







(1)

explains, among other things, that the work done in

creating the volume Vα at depth H will always be

greater than the hypothetical work we would have to

do in pulling the considered object from depth H to the

surface. It should be noted that in equation (1) there is

no, any parameter that determines the physical

properties of the transported excavated material like its

density. However, in deriving this relation [10,11,12]

we started from the formula for work W1-2 taking into

account the densities of the transported excavated

material.

The coefficient δEα is a dimensionless value and

informs us about the energy demand in relation to the

potential energy, but at the same time we have no

information, for example, about the mass of the

transported load. This can be interpreted as follows.

Knowing the density ρα of the working medium, we

know the value of energy demand. In addition,

knowing the densities of the transported ore and the

volume Vα, we can determine the mass of the ore we

are able to transport. Nevertheless, it is the density ρα

of the working medium that determines the energy

demand.

Figure 3 shows the mutual correlation between γα

and δEα.

Figure 3. Graphical interpretation of the correlation of the δEα

coefficient with the γα coefficient [12].

We can see that in order for the work of creating an

area Vα filled with a fluid of density ρα at depth H to be

equal to the potential energy ΔEp taken as a reference

point, the density of ρα at depth H must be zero

(vacuum). The more the density ρα approaches the

value of 𝜌

𝐻

𝑂

, the more work must be done by the

working medium. This is as reasonable as possible,

because the higher the value of density ρα is, the more

work it must produce.

4 ENERGY COMPARISON OF THREE SEABED

TRANSPORTATION CONCEPTS.

Let’s now take a look, in terms of energy requirements,

at three concepts for transporting excavated soil

(cargo) from the seabed, shown in Figure 4. and

discussed in more detail in the article [9,11]. In the first

concept (I), we consider what energy is needed to pull

the cargo from a certain depth to the surface. In the next

one (II), based on hydraulic transport, we determine

the minimum energy to guarantee the extraction of

excavated material from the seabed. And in the third

concept (III) based on changing the average density of

the entire module as a source of energy for transport

from the seabed, we focus on comparing this method

of transport with the previous ones in terms of energy

to determine its suitability.

In our considerations, the reference point is the

potential energy Ep. In order to make the consideration

of the first and second concepts more transparent, we

assume that we can replace each transported load of

mass m and volume V with a theoretical sphere of

radius r with the same mass and volume and density

𝜌. Whereby, to simplify the notation of the relationship,

we will assume that 𝜌

𝐻

𝑂

=𝜌

𝑝

and it is the density of

seawater at the considered depth.

Figure 4. Graphical interpretation of comparison of energy

demand for different methods of transport from the seabed.

In the first case considered (I), the energy E1

required to transport the excavated material from the

seabed to the surface is, as can be seen, the product of

the potential energy Ep and the quadratic function

(1+𝐶∙𝑣

) mainly dependent on the velocity of extraction

of the cargo 𝑣. In the diagram shown, we ignore the

effect of the lifting rope on the considered energy E1 to

relate it only to the cargo. In the analysis of energy E2

(II) based on hydraulic transport, which currently

seems to be the most popularized transport system, we

can roughly estimate its value as directly proportional

to the depth of immersion H, but as a parameter

expressed in units of [km]. Whereby

𝑅

is the inner

diameter of the pipe in which the proces of

transporting the cargo towards the Surface takes place.

It should be noted that in the dependance on the energy

E2 there is no velocity of the cargo lift because it is taken

as zero. There is also no value for the velocity of the

medium, i.e. seawater, because it can be expressed in a

different form, which is precisely derived in the article

[11]. On the other hand, 𝐶

𝑥

in both cases considered is

defined as the coefficient of drag force and depends on

the geometry of the transported cargo.

Now let’s look at our concept of transport III based

on the change in the average density of the whole

232

module. Note the much simpler expression of the

dependence of E3 on Ep with respect to the other two.

However, the value of the coefficient 𝐶3 less than twoi

s due to the fact that the density of the working

medium and, in particular, gas for a depth of 5 [km],

which corresponds to a pressure of about 500 [bar], is

for most of the fluids we analyze less than two (for

example, for nitrogen it is 1.8). Comparing this with the

two previous cases considered, it is easy to see that

Concept III in the form as presented is energetically the

most favorable for us with regard to the idea of

transport from the seabed [5].

5 EFFECT OF COMPRESSION OF THE WORKING

MEDIUM ON THE ENERGY BALANCE OF THE

PROCESS

Concept III, presented above, in practice does not turn

out to be as advantageous as it might seem, since it

would probably have long since found application in

the transport of dredged material from the seabed. It is

worth noting that in Concept III we started our

considerations with the assumption that the working

medium already has a suitable pressure value. In

reality, however, this is not the case, especially when

the working medium is gas, which must first be

compressed to the required pressure.

Let's analyze this problem in more detail, assuming

that the working medium is nitrogen, and the starting

point is located on the free surface of the sea, where the

temperature is 20°C and the pressure is 1 bar. The end

point, on the other hand, is located at a depth of about

5 km, where the temperature is 4°C and the pressure is

500 bar.

Using the online calculator available at

[https://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/], we can

estimate the compression energy requirements of

Ekom needed to achieve the pressure balancing

hydrostatic pressure at a depth of 5 km. We will

determine the work from equation:

W H U=  −

(2)

Which is a fundamental relationship derived from

the definition of enthalpy and the first law of

thermodynamics [2,7,22].

Thus, for the assumed starting point, the value of

internal energy U1 is 217.08 kJ/kg and enthalpy H1 =

304.06 kJ/kg.

At the end point, the value of internal energy U2 is

127.83 kJ/kg and enthalpy H2 = 241.10 kJ/kg.

Meanwhile, the density of the medium at the end

conditions is ρα=441.42 kg/m

Based on the above values, according to relation (2),

the work of compression W is 26.29 kJ/kg.

We can also estimate the potential energy Ep that is

needed to move the excavated mass corresponding to

1 kg for a depth difference of 5 km. This value is Ep 

49.05 kJ/kg. Note that in our considerations m=V∙(ρu-

ρp). Knowing the compression energy Ekom, we can

determine the total energy requirement E3C according

to concept III.

3C kom E





=

(3)

We can also, as in equation (1), define the

dimensionless coefficient of

3C kom E





=

(4)

and consequently the coefficient

3C kom E





=

(5)

Finally, we can write the total energy demand E3C in

the form of

3C kom E





=

(6)

Assuming δp = 1000 kg/m

and ρα as we defined

earlier is the coefficient δEα = 1.79. Since seawater is

heavier than the assumed value of δp then consequently

δEα will be less than 1.79 but not significantly.

Returning to the determined energy of compression

Ekom, we see that it is smaller than the estimated

potential energy Ep. It also turns out that E3C of

47.06 kJ/kg is smaller than the estimated potential

energy Ep. The problem of the erroneous result is

caused by our overzealousness in correctly assuming

the end point for which t2 is smaller than t1 and

determining the work of compression directly from

equation (2). The compression process itself can be

constrained by two extreme processes. One is a

perfectly isothermal process and the other a perfectly

isentropic process. In both cases considered, we

assumed that the temperature of the initial point is t1 =

20 °C. Let's look at the first process. In this case, the

compression energy requirement Ekom is 32 kJ/kg. This

is less than the estimated potential energy Ep but

ultimately δη is greater than one and is 1.17.

Consequently, the total energy demand E3C is greater

than the estimated potential energy Ep. In the second

case, the compression energy demand Ekom is as high as

426.42 kJ/kg. The process temperature rises to a value

of 1269 °C. The value of δη is 15.56 and the value of δkom

is equal to 8.69.

6 CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, in our research we actually took

Newton's first law as a reference point: “ if there are no

external forces acting on a body, or the acting forces

balance each other, then the body remains at rest, or

moves in uniform rectilinear motion” which is a

development of Galileo's ideas. He noted that if we

remove the obstacles to motion, the need for any force

to sustain motion disappears. Uniform rectilinear

motion will go on by itself, without any external help;

we sometimes refer to such motion as free motion, or

translating free ascent to our research area.

In the context of our consideration of the total

energy required for ascent with respect to Ep, two

parameters are of key importance. The first is δEα,

which is a dimensionless quantity that depends solely

on the physical properties of the environment. We have

no influence on the value of this parameter.

The second parameter, δkom, is also a dimensionless

quantity, but its value is related to processes that we

can already significantly influence. This raises the

question of whether it is possible to eliminate this

233

parameter. The analysis shows that the value of δkom

depending on the compression process can take values

from 0.65 to 8.89.

Aiming to eliminate the compression energy

requirement, we proposed the concept of using the

phase transformation - of a solid or liquid into a gas, or

of a solid into a liquid - as an alternative energy source

for transporting material from the seabed (Figure 1).

This was the issue we tackled first which resulted in

articles [3-6,9-20] and patents [6,18].

Figure 4. Dependence of the possibility of energy recovery χE

[%] on the parameter , which is the ratio of the density of

the transported cargo



u to the density of sea water



p on the

surface [9,11].

The concept of using the phase transformation of a

solid or liquid into a gaseous state or a solid into a

liquid has one characteristic property that

distinguishes it from the systems currently in use. This

characteristic is the possibility of using (in the next

cycle) part of the energy (Figure 4) that has been

generated or is necessary to initiate the ascent of the

transport module. The method of transporting

excavated material from the seabed using rope or

hydraulic methods is associated with the property that

the total energy that we had to use to perform the

intended purpose is irretrievably lost [5].

Returning to the first case considered, in which the

determined energy requirement E3C of 47.06 kJ/kg is

less than the estimated potential energy Ep. was a

stimulus for thought. The problem of the erroneous

result, which earlier in this article we described as

caused by our overzealousness in the correctness of the

assumption of the endpoint, was actually the

inspiration for a new look at the problem under

consideration. This resulted in articles [5,15,17,19,20]

and patents [6,18] dealing precisely with the recovery,

storage and conversion of a portion of energy. The one

that is not used at a given position of the transport

module in the ascent and descent process in order to

use it when it is needed to continue the set process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The research was financed from subsidies for the

maintenance and development of the research potential

of the AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków,

Poland.

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