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1 INTRODUCTION
Maritime navigation is a complex process
encompassing voyage planning, execution, and
continuous monitoring of a ship's movement along a
predetermined route. During navigation, an officer of
the navigational watch (OOW) has approved
navigation equipment at their disposal with a greater
or lesser degree of integration. One of the most
important Navigational Information Systems (NIS) is
the Electronic Chart Display and Information System
(ECDIS). According to [1], introducing ECDIS has
reduced navigation risks by giving OOWs more time
to focus on their tasks, improving visual display and
situational awareness, and enabling more efficient
navigational chart updating. However, the
effectiveness of the ECDIS and its usage, and
consequently the safety of navigation, largely depend
on the abilities of the individual OOW. In other words,
how the OOW operates the system is crucial for
successfully performing navigational tasks and
achieving conditions for safe navigation.
ECDIS is no longer a novelty in maritime navigation
but acts as the primary navigation tool. However, it
should be emphasised that inappropriate use of the
system by OOWs or specific technical deficiencies can
threaten navigation and maritime safety and,
consequently, negatively impact the marine
environment, cause material damage, and endanger
human lives.
According to [2], which analysed maritime
accidents related to the use of ECDIS, it is noticeable
that most of them did not occur due to technical
problems but due to human errors. The most common
and significant errors include failure to use alarms
effectively, failure to use the automatic navigation
route check function, inadequate chart scale,
From Paper to Digital: The Impact and Hidden
Challenges of Mandatory ECDIS on Maritime Safety
and Seafarer Practice
N. Hasanspahić
1
, D. Brčić
2
, M. Car
1
& S. Žuškin
2
1
University of Dubrovnik, Dubrovnik, Croatia
2
University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
ABSTRACT: This paper explores the impact of the Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) on
the safety of navigation and seafarers’ professional practices. As ECDIS has become the primary tool for
navigation, its proper use is critical for ensuring safe maritime operations. Drawing on data from a questionnaire
completed by 154 active seafarers, this research investigates how ECDIS influences situational awareness, the use
and management of safety settings, training adequacy, and system-related challenges. The findings reveal that
while most respondents recognise ECDIS as a tool that enhances navigational safety, significant concerns remain
regarding human error, insufficient training, and inconsistent application of safety settings such as the safety
contour. Additionally, steering errors during restricted water manoeuvres and system crashes emerged as
recurrent safety concerns. The study highlights the need for improved standardisation, targeted training, and
more effective integration of human and technological elements to ensure optimal ECDIS use. The results offer
actionable insights for enhancing ECDIS implementation and maritime safety standards.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 19
Number 1
March 2025
DOI: 10.12716/1001.19.01.08
62
inadequate adjustment of safety parameters, and
insufficient knowledge and training of the OOW. The
analysis of accidents in which the ECDIS played a role
as one of the contributing factors has confirmed this [3-
7].
Furthermore, according to the guidelines of the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) [8], OOWs'
over-reliance on NIS can lead to human error and,
consequently, a threat to the ship's safe navigation.
Therefore, during ECDIS training and education, it is
necessary to include all potential known and observed
problems that may arise when operating the system.
The IMO assumes that using the ECDIS system
contributes to safer navigation. However, previous
research [2,9-12] indicates several factors that indicate
the opposite, which is one of the elements of
motivation for this research.
Inadequate use of navigation equipment can result
in a maritime accident or an unwanted event such as a
near-miss. In [11], 80 reports of maritime accidents
from 2008 to 2018 were analysed to determine whether
the ECDIS system was a significant contributing factor
to accidents. The authors determined that in 22
maritime accidents, the ECDIS or electronic navigation
charts (ENC) had a significant impact on the
occurrence of the accident. The results of the analysis
identified insufficient knowledge of OOWs,
shortcomings in navigation procedures, and
inadequate ECDIS safety settings, with a special
emphasis on alarm settings, as significant factors
contributing to accidents. Furthermore, in [13], the
authors analysed 25 grounding accidents related to
inadequate use of the ECDIS. According to the results,
in 22 out of 25 groundings, the situational awareness of
navigation officers reached only the first level
(perception) and did not develop further. One of the
causes of groundings was inadequate situational
awareness associated with ECDIS alarms. According to
the authors, automation helps process the collected
data to facilitate decision-making. Still, at the same
time, it often excludes the OOW from the decision-
making process during navigation. In this state, the
OOW develops inadequate situational awareness
because he is unaware of the automation's performance
and the features it is supposed to control. Being outside
the decision-making process is not a big problem when
automation works well. Still, when it fails, the OOW
cannot identify the problem in time, potentially leading
to an accident.
Furthermore, the problem of inadequate situational
awareness is most often reflected in how navigation
officers do not adequately use all the safety functions
of the ECDIS [13]. In addition, the seriousness of
human error consequences that occur during pilotage
and other navigation operations, such as navigation in
restricted areas, has been confirmed [14]. According to
[14], understanding and identifying the procedures
during such operations is extremely important to
arranging navigation devices and equipment on the
navigating bridge effectively and conducting adequate
training of the OOWs. The study results showed that
during pilotage and navigation in restricted areas, the
possibility of human errors has increased, the most
common cause of which is a lack of situational
awareness. The authors suggest further research to
quantify the cause-and-effect relationships between
errors due to failure to take adequate actions and lack
of situational awareness.
This study seeks to examine the challenges of
ECDIS implementation based on the experiences and
perceptions of active seafarers. The primary aim of this
paper is to analyse the impact of ECDIS on maritime
navigation safety as perceived by the seafarers and
their professional practices.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Previous research indicates various problems and
difficulties recognised when using the ECDIS. The
paper [15] addresses the technological advancements
in shipping, pointing out two major issues: inadequate
education and training for seafarers, and the human
element that can contribute to accidents when
operating modern navigation systems. The authors
reference an accident where a ship ran aground
because the navigational watch officer failed to identify
a hazard (shallows) on the ENC, attributed to the night
mode of the display. The authors noted that switching
to a different display mode (day/dusk/night) could
have highlighted the hazard. The paper emphasises the
need for user-friendly automated systems and calls for
a standardised design, configuration, and installation
approach. Furthermore, the authors recommend that
equipment manufacturers engage closely with OOWs
while developing navigational devices to prevent
issues related to poor design, installation, and usage of
automated systems.
The previously identified issues with displaying
navigation charts on system displays and prior surveys
and research findings related to navigation
information systems are discussed in [16-19]. The
authors highlight various potential issues at different
levels, including those associated with system
installation, maintenance, operation, and navigation.
They also address knowledge of the system, Electronic
Navigational Charts (ENC) production, and the
traditional versus simplified representation of symbols
on ENCs. As noted in [12], effective use of the ECDIS
necessitates appropriate knowledge and experience.
New technologies may give OOWs a misleading sense
of safety due to the vast amount of data and options
available, while others may feel overwhelmed and
struggle to adapt. Errors can arise from discrepancies
between systems produced by different
manufacturers, leading to system acceptance
challenges due to usability variations. The authors
recommend a revised strategy for ECDIS training and
operation education, asserting that a mere five-day
training period is inadequate for mastering all the
functionalities of ECDIS, particularly for OOWs with
significant navigational experience using PNC.
In addition to the issues above, [20-22] highlight
concerns regarding ECDIS training and education,
suggesting possible solutions. While there is no strong
evidence that experienced seafarers will better accept
the system [23], the necessity to tailor ECDIS education
to specific navigational tasks [24] has been
acknowledged. It is crucial for the OOW to remain
cognizant of the system's limitations and to conduct
appropriate checks [9,25,26]. Even with maritime
authorities striving to enhance the competence of
63
seafarers, human error continues to be one of the
primary contributors to maritime accidents,
significantly influenced by insufficient situational
awareness [27]. According to [28], poor passage
planning stemming from incorrect assessment of safety
navigational factors hampers the ability to identify
navigational hazards. These elements, along with a
lack of operational understanding, excessive reliance
on the system, and potential errors within the
positioning system, increase the risk of maritime
incidents. Thus, it is vital to implement effective
passage planning practices and simulator training that
incorporates potential equipment failures for safer
navigation.
The previous research has highlighted several gaps.
Although earlier studies have looked at the effect of
ECDIS on navigation, there has been little extensive
collection and analysis of seafarers' direct insights
about its benefits, drawbacks, and related challenges.
Most existing research primarily focuses on accident
reports and case studies, with insufficient quantitative
data from a varied group of seafarers encompassing
different ranks and vessel types. Although there is a
recognised need for improved ECDIS training,
minimal research has directly asked seafarers about
their views on the effectiveness of current training.
While previous work has noted issues with colour
contrast and symbol clarity, survey-based research is
scarce detailing how seafarers encounter these
problems in real situations. This questionnaire-based
study aims to produce a larger, statistically significant
dataset to improve understanding of ECDIS usage in
practice. It identifies gaps in training programs by
examining questionnaire responses related to training
sufficiency and competency levels. By systematically
analysing survey data from active seafarers, this study
enhances existing research and provides actionable
insights for improving the effectiveness and safety of
ECDIS implementation in maritime navigation.
The main objective of this study is to assess how
ECDIS influences maritime navigation safety and
professional seafaring practices. This study intends to
fill existing gaps by documenting the real-world
experiences of active maritime professionals and
offering empirical insights that can improve ECDIS
implementation and training standards.
3 METHODOLOGY
The questionnaire was developed using insights from
previous studies, the authors’ professional
experiences, and informal interviews with active
OOWs. It was intended for shipping stakeholders,
specifically a targeted and experienced group familiar
with ECDIS's advantages and possible disadvantages.
OOWs, masters, and other stakeholders, including
equipment manufacturers and navigation safety
inspectors, completed the questionnaire. During the
questionnaire's preparation, a pilot survey was created
and distributed to experienced officers, who provided
feedback and opinions. The questionnaire was
validated and somewhat modified based on the
respondents' expertise. The survey was available
online from December 7, 2021 to December 6, 2022,
with a virtual snowball sampling method used to
distribute the questionnaire.
The questions can be categorised into three basic
types: open-ended, closed-ended, and combined. The
survey questionnaire has several interconnected
components, including six sections and 51 questions.
However, to achieve the aim of this study, responses to
22 questions were analysed, and findings were
discussed.
Given the limited accessibility of seafarers, the
questionnaire was distributed using a Virtual Snowball
Sampling method, which is effective for reaching
dispersed or hard-to-access populations [29,30].
Moreover, various maritime agencies were reached out
to for distributing the questionnaire, and LinkedIn was
also utilised as a social platform. To eliminate bias, the
questionnaire was designed to be anonymous and
confidential. For respondents unable to complete the
survey online, the questionnaire was printed on paper
and delivered to the ships. The questionnaire was
completed by 203 respondents, 154 of whom were
active seafarers. Therefore, only those responses were
taken into account for this study.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 1 presents the respondents' ranks and sea
service time. Most respondents (61%) are masters, staff
captains, chiefs, and first officers. 64% of respondents
have ten or more years of sea service, making them
experienced seafarers.
Figure 1. Respondents' ranks and sea service time.
Moreover, 82% of respondents are experienced in
working with ECDIS and PNC. Of these, 16% used
only ECDIS for passage planning and navigation,
while only 2% used only PNC.
4.1 Situational Awareness
Because situational awareness was recognised as one
of the most important factors for navigation safety and
contributing to maritime accidents involving
inadequate ECDIS usage, several questions were
intended to examine whether respondents experienced
situational awareness-related problems during
navigation, especially while hand steering in restricted
waters. Table 1 presents questions dealing with
situational awareness during manoeuvring in
restricted waters.
64
Table 1. Respondents' experiences with steering errors in
restricted waters.
Question
Yes (%)
No (%)
When manoeuvring in restricted waters and in
closed-loop communication, have you ever
witnessed the wrong order given to the helmsman?
79
21
When manoeuvring in restricted waters, in closed-
loop communication, have you ever witnessed the
wrong execution of the given order by the
helmsman?
85
15
According to responses, most seafarers experienced
a wrong order given or executed by the helmsman. In
addition, when asked to specify the likelihood of a
potential threat to navigation safety, 66% of
respondents stated that the potential threat was likely.
This finding indicates a significant problem, because
steering errors (wrongly given or executed orders)
might cause serious accidents such as groundings or
collisions. If they occurred in narrow passages, the
effects of such accidents could be more significant.
Therefore, the respondents were asked whether they
agreed with the following statement: „Safety of
navigation would benefit from a system that raises the
alarm in case of wrong helm orders or their execution.“
More than half of the respondents (56%) agreed with it;
27% remained neutral, while 17% did not agree. In
addition, the respondents were asked whether modern
navigation has decreased situational awareness and
caused us to over-rely on electronic aids for navigation.
Interesting answers were received here: 38% of
respondents agree, 31% are neutral, while 31% do not
agree with the statement.
4.2 Usage of ECDIS safety settings
ECDIS safety settings intend to improve navigation
safety, reduce accidents, especially groundings, and
enable safety awareness during passage planning and
navigation. However, ECDIS settings must be adjusted
appropriately and changed to affect safety positively.
Because OOWs enter ECDIS safety settings, companies
should give instructions or guidelines on how to do it
adequately. Such procedures significantly improve
maritime safety and facilitate the passage planning
process. Therefore, the respondents were asked
whether their company defined safety contour (the
most important safety setting) and their opinion on the
possibilities of changing values during the voyage.
Furthermore, as large waves could affect Under Keel
Clearance (UKC) and, in extreme cases, even cause
groundings, respondents were asked whether they
consider wave height while passage planning in
restricted waters. The questions and responses are
presented in Table 2.
The safety contour is one of the most important
parameters in the ECDIS settings. According to
previous research, many companies have prescribed
instructions for calculating the UKC value and setting
the safety contour. Based on the responses, 93% of
respondents stated that their companies have
prescribed procedures for setting the safety contour.
Given the importance of this parameter and the fact
that all OOWs have access to change the settings, there
is a potential risk of incorrect or inappropriate setting
of the safety contour value. Therefore, when asked
whether everyone should be allowed to change
settings, 70% of respondents stated that only certain
members of the navigational watch should be allowed
to change these settings. In comparison, 30% of
respondents thought the opposite, which is the case in
practice. Moreover, most respondents consider wave
height when calculating UKC, while less than half
(33%) experienced wave impact on charted depth
(reduced). As most respondents stated that their
company set up procedures for safety contour settings,
they were asked: „Please specify which data you utilise
to define the Safety contour setting?“. Figure 2 presents
how respondents determined the safety contour.
Table 2. Respondents' experiences and opinions on ECDIS
safety settings.
Question
Yes (%)
No (%)
Did your company set up procedures for the
"Safety contour" definition?
93
7
The "Safety contour" parameter is a crucial safety
setting, but its wrong setup can lead to serious
accidents. Do you think changing the "Safety
contour" settings should be limited (password
protected or prescribed by Shipboard Directive)
only to certain Bridge team members?
70
30
During the passage planning and monitoring
process in restricted waters, do you consider the
expected wave height and its possible impact on
the charted depth?
69
31
Have you ever experienced the wave impact on the
charted depth?
33
67
Figure 2. Safety Contour setting calculation on board
respondents' ships.
Based on Figure 2, it is evident that there is no
standardised way to determine this value, and that
different methods and data are used, not all of which
are necessarily safe for navigation. In [31], the authors
elaborated on the limitations of the ECDIS display,
data reliability, the importance of alarm management,
and adequate safety settings applicable to Very Large
Crude Carrier (VLCC) tankers. ECDIS must
demonstrate data reliability and availability that are
equivalent to official paper navigation charts (PNCs).
Adequate situational awareness is significantly
enhanced by recognising and accurately interpreting
all objects on the system display. The paper emphasises
the crucial necessity of appropriately configuring
ECDIS safety settings and the need for OOWs and
Masters to understand and use adequate safety depth
and safety contour values.
4.3 ECDIS Training and System Design
Previous studies and accident case reports recognised
the importance of adequate ECDIS training and OOWs'
65
competence. Respondents were asked to state their
opinions and agreements in Table 3.
Table 3. Respondents' opinions on ECDIS training.
Question
Median
Standard
Deviation
In your current role, do you think you possess
sufficient knowledge about the ECDIS system to
use it proficiently and flawlessly?
5.0
0.77
Regarding further system development, do you
think you could benefit from additional ECDIS-
related training and enhance your knowledge
about system utilisation?
5.0
1.19
Do you agree that ECDIS-related training should
be tailored according to the trainee or officer rank
on board and adopted according to the current
involvement with the system?
3.0
1.22
Do you agree that continuous professional
development, in terms of further educational
training, is needed for all navigational ranks to
keep up with the latest advancements in
navigation information systems and related
emerging technologies?
4.0
0.84
(1) Strongly Disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Neutral, (4) Agree, (5)
Strongly Agree
The median values on the first two questions in
Table 3 show that respondents believe they are
adequately trained and well-competent for ECDIS
usage and could benefit from additional training.
However, opinions remain mostly neutral when
considering tailoring ECDIS training according to
rank. Moreover, respondents agree that continuous
development is needed to stay up to date with
emerging navigational systems and technologies.
Similar findings were discovered in [32], where the
authors explored ECDIS education and training
globally, particularly emphasising the training system
utilised in the Republic of Croatia. They found that
ECDIS Generic Training certification achieved a 100%
success rate, while ECDIS Type Specific Training
reached 90%. Although the duration of generic training
is uniform across all maritime education centres, the
eligibility criteria for candidates vary among
participants. Given the differing regulations across
various countries, it is essential to recognise that many
respondents desire more in-depth training to
familiarise themselves with the system, highlighting
that the current training duration is inadequate. The
authors concluded a clear need for ongoing similar
analyses, engaging all relevant stakeholders, including
legislators and seafarers until an optimal solution is
identified [32].
Furthermore, the seafarers were asked to state the
most frequent issues and problems detected when
using ECDIS. Figure 3 presents problems encountered
by the respondents.
Figure 3. The most frequent ECDIS usage problems
recognised by the respondents.
As shown in Figure 3, system crashes are the most
frequent issues detected by the respondents, followed
by system and data problems and insufficient coverage
with official charts. These issues must be addressed to
improve navigation safety and facilitate OOWs' ECDIS
usage. Moreover, ECDIS-related training could include
recommendations for solving some of the issues
presented in Figure 3, which could improve OOWs'
competence and knowledge of the system.
As previous studies recognised design,
standardisation, and usability, it was considered
relevant to examine seafarers' opinions on ECDIS
standardisation and their experience with chart symbol
misinterpretation (Table 4).
Table 4. ECDIS design, standardisation and usability
Question
Median
Standard
Deviation
Would better standardisation of the ECDIS
interface and settings improve safety and
usability?
4.0
0.71
Have you experienced issues related to
misinterpretation of ENC symbols due to
colour mismatch, scale (zoom in/out), display
mode (Day/Dusk/Night), or illumination?
2.0
0.86
(1) Strongly Disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Neutral, (4) Agree, (5)
Strongly Agree
The study [33] examined maritime incidents where
the ECDIS played a direct or indirect role, particularly
in cases where ships were detained by Port State
Control (PSC) Inspections due to issues with the ECDIS
or the OOWs' inadequate training in its operation. The
findings indicated a lack of standardisation in
terminology, system settings, screen displays, and
functions among various ECDIS manufacturers,
significantly impacting navigational safety [33]. As
shown by the responses, respondents believe that
maritime safety and usability of systems would be
improved, which is in line with findings presented in
[33]. Furthermore, although according to the median
value, respondents did not experience issues related to
misinterpretation of ENC symbols, related accidents
confirm that adequate display mode usage is
significant for safe ECDIS navigation.
In the end, the respondents were asked whether
they agreed with the statement that implementing the
ECDIS has contributed to navigation safety. Most
respondents (84%) agreed with this statement, 13%
remained neutral, and only 3% disagreed. The
responses highlighted the importance of ECDIS
implementation and showed that seafarers have
66
positive opinions and consider it an important tool
enabling safer and easier voyage planning and
navigation.
The OOW must be competent and know how to use
a range of techniques for positioning the ship and
generally conducting navigation, including, but not
limited to, individual navigation methods. A certain
presence of situational awareness is inevitable for safe
navigation procedures. However, most respondents
believe that modern navigation information systems,
despite the advantages they have brought, reduce
situational awareness and contribute to an overreliance
on technological achievements. As examined in [34],
overreliance is a significant problem that leads to a loss
of situational awareness. Therefore, crosschecking
positions by other means, such as radar or other
navigational methods, is of utmost significance for safe
navigation. Furthermore, ECDIS education and
training must be enhanced, and all possible system
drawbacks must be included, along with
recommendations for reducing human error. Hence,
ECDIS education and training should be adapted to
reflect the most frequent problems seafarers encounter
and address them adequately. Besides training for
seafarers, as noted in [35], ECDIS training for Port State
Control (PSC) officers should also encompass ECDIS
issues that seafarers encounter and facilitate the
identification of substandard ECDIS usage onboard
ships.
5 CONCLUSIONS
In general, but especially in paperless navigation,
misinterpretation of ENC symbols, inadequate alarm
use, and human error during helm orders in restricted
waters emerged as recurring concerns. These findings
reinforce prior research suggesting that while ECDIS
can enhance navigational precision, it can also
contribute to a decline in active watchkeeping and
awareness if not used with critical oversight.
Collectively, these thematic insights emphasise the
multifaceted nature of safe ECDIS operation. They
highlight the interplay between human skill, system
clarity, and organisational investment in training and
standardisation. The findings validate the need for
holistic approaches that address technological and
human elements in designing and deploying maritime
navigation systems.
System crashes, problems with the system and data,
including chart updates, insufficient coverage of
official charts, and insufficient knowledge, continue to
appear as important, perceived problems despite the
fact that the ECDIS transitional implementation period
has passed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper was funded under the project line ZIP UNIRI of
the University of Rijeka, for the project UNIRI-ZIP-2103-10-
22.
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