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inadequate adjustment of safety parameters, and
insufficient knowledge and training of the OOW. The
analysis of accidents in which the ECDIS played a role
as one of the contributing factors has confirmed this [3-
7].
Furthermore, according to the guidelines of the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) [8], OOWs'
over-reliance on NIS can lead to human error and,
consequently, a threat to the ship's safe navigation.
Therefore, during ECDIS training and education, it is
necessary to include all potential known and observed
problems that may arise when operating the system.
The IMO assumes that using the ECDIS system
contributes to safer navigation. However, previous
research [2,9-12] indicates several factors that indicate
the opposite, which is one of the elements of
motivation for this research.
Inadequate use of navigation equipment can result
in a maritime accident or an unwanted event such as a
near-miss. In [11], 80 reports of maritime accidents
from 2008 to 2018 were analysed to determine whether
the ECDIS system was a significant contributing factor
to accidents. The authors determined that in 22
maritime accidents, the ECDIS or electronic navigation
charts (ENC) had a significant impact on the
occurrence of the accident. The results of the analysis
identified insufficient knowledge of OOWs,
shortcomings in navigation procedures, and
inadequate ECDIS safety settings, with a special
emphasis on alarm settings, as significant factors
contributing to accidents. Furthermore, in [13], the
authors analysed 25 grounding accidents related to
inadequate use of the ECDIS. According to the results,
in 22 out of 25 groundings, the situational awareness of
navigation officers reached only the first level
(perception) and did not develop further. One of the
causes of groundings was inadequate situational
awareness associated with ECDIS alarms. According to
the authors, automation helps process the collected
data to facilitate decision-making. Still, at the same
time, it often excludes the OOW from the decision-
making process during navigation. In this state, the
OOW develops inadequate situational awareness
because he is unaware of the automation's performance
and the features it is supposed to control. Being outside
the decision-making process is not a big problem when
automation works well. Still, when it fails, the OOW
cannot identify the problem in time, potentially leading
to an accident.
Furthermore, the problem of inadequate situational
awareness is most often reflected in how navigation
officers do not adequately use all the safety functions
of the ECDIS [13]. In addition, the seriousness of
human error consequences that occur during pilotage
and other navigation operations, such as navigation in
restricted areas, has been confirmed [14]. According to
[14], understanding and identifying the procedures
during such operations is extremely important to
arranging navigation devices and equipment on the
navigating bridge effectively and conducting adequate
training of the OOWs. The study results showed that
during pilotage and navigation in restricted areas, the
possibility of human errors has increased, the most
common cause of which is a lack of situational
awareness. The authors suggest further research to
quantify the cause-and-effect relationships between
errors due to failure to take adequate actions and lack
of situational awareness.
This study seeks to examine the challenges of
ECDIS implementation based on the experiences and
perceptions of active seafarers. The primary aim of this
paper is to analyse the impact of ECDIS on maritime
navigation safety as perceived by the seafarers and
their professional practices.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Previous research indicates various problems and
difficulties recognised when using the ECDIS. The
paper [15] addresses the technological advancements
in shipping, pointing out two major issues: inadequate
education and training for seafarers, and the human
element that can contribute to accidents when
operating modern navigation systems. The authors
reference an accident where a ship ran aground
because the navigational watch officer failed to identify
a hazard (shallows) on the ENC, attributed to the night
mode of the display. The authors noted that switching
to a different display mode (day/dusk/night) could
have highlighted the hazard. The paper emphasises the
need for user-friendly automated systems and calls for
a standardised design, configuration, and installation
approach. Furthermore, the authors recommend that
equipment manufacturers engage closely with OOWs
while developing navigational devices to prevent
issues related to poor design, installation, and usage of
automated systems.
The previously identified issues with displaying
navigation charts on system displays and prior surveys
and research findings related to navigation
information systems are discussed in [16-19]. The
authors highlight various potential issues at different
levels, including those associated with system
installation, maintenance, operation, and navigation.
They also address knowledge of the system, Electronic
Navigational Charts (ENC) production, and the
traditional versus simplified representation of symbols
on ENCs. As noted in [12], effective use of the ECDIS
necessitates appropriate knowledge and experience.
New technologies may give OOWs a misleading sense
of safety due to the vast amount of data and options
available, while others may feel overwhelmed and
struggle to adapt. Errors can arise from discrepancies
between systems produced by different
manufacturers, leading to system acceptance
challenges due to usability variations. The authors
recommend a revised strategy for ECDIS training and
operation education, asserting that a mere five-day
training period is inadequate for mastering all the
functionalities of ECDIS, particularly for OOWs with
significant navigational experience using PNC.
In addition to the issues above, [20-22] highlight
concerns regarding ECDIS training and education,
suggesting possible solutions. While there is no strong
evidence that experienced seafarers will better accept
the system [23], the necessity to tailor ECDIS education
to specific navigational tasks [24] has been
acknowledged. It is crucial for the OOW to remain
cognizant of the system's limitations and to conduct
appropriate checks [9,25,26]. Even with maritime
authorities striving to enhance the competence of