913

An Exploration of the Theoretical Foundations of

nboard Seafarer Training: A Systematic Review of the

iterature

. Mori & M. E. Manuel

World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden

ABSTRACT: At the core of the shipping enterprise is the competence of the crew of the ships. For this reason,

the international community (particularly as represented by the International Maritime Organization (IMO))

has always endeavoured to ensure that seafarer education and training is as optimal as can be achiev

ed by the

global community of nations. A variety of elements are normally associated with such education and training.

They include educational elements conducted ashore in maritime education and training institutions

(classroom-based lectures, laboratory exercises and simulators, for example) as well as training conducted on

board a ship in service. It has been well recognised that one of the most effective means of practical training for

seafarers is the training conducted on board ships, so-called “onboard training”. There is, however, a wide

range of approaches taken by different jurisdictions in their application of specific strategies for onboard

training. The approaches may differ in timing (at what stage of the educational process onboard training is

conducted) and duration (how long the training is carried out), for example. These differences exist even

though onboard training itself may be argued to universally derive its primary philosophical basis from the

learning theories of situated learning and cognitive apprenticeship. To identify the rationale and factors

informing different approaches to the implementation of onboard training from a theoretical perspective

(establish a theoretical framework), and thereby to set the stage for the interrogation of how these approaches

will address the challenges of the future (arising, for example, from the acceleration of technologically-mediated

education and training), it is necessary to, first of all, examine how apprenticeship and on-the-job training have

been perceived in the theoretical literature inside or outside the maritime domain and how the different

approaches are informed by these theories. This paper, therefore, employed a systematic literature review to

identify the theoretical foundation of on-the-job training and apprenticeship.

Objective: To explore theoretical foundations of apprenticeship/on-the-job training and how they may apply to

onboard training in the maritime industry.

Methods: The authors conducted an electronic literature search with specified s

election criteria for

inclusion/exclusion using two databases - EBSCO Discovery Service and SCOPUS. Thereafter, and through

qualitative coding of the literature found, several research themes were identified and explored. Using an

electronic search with a specific search strategy from the two databases, a total of 3476 studies were identified.

After screening per the relevant inclusion and exclusion criteria, 48 studies were ultimately included in the

review.

Results: The review of the 48 studies (from a wide range of industries) found no study that focused on the

theoretical foundations of onboard training specifically. However, it was confirmed from the study that three

macro learning theories – relating to situated learning, cognitive apprenticeship and the zone of proximal

development - are the dominant theories that relate to apprenticeship and on-the-job training in general. This

review also found that different perspectives relating to processes of learning, guidance and support and the

materiality of the context are critical considerations for apprenticeship and on-the-job training. Future research

should explore how these factors are manifested in or considered by seafarer education and training

jurisdictions when they select specific onboard training strategies and how other forms of competence building

(such as training on simulators ashore) may or may not be limited in augmenting or replacing time onboard

ship.

Contribution: This work addresses a gap in the literature relating to the theoretical underpinnings of onboard

training in the maritime industry and contributes both a theoretical/conceptual framework for onboard training

and a theory-informed definition of this expression of apprenticeship. Knowledge about these theoretical

underpinnings is essential as the industry considers options for the remission of sea time, the increased

automation of ships and the diversity of practices of onboard training in different jurisdictions.

http://www.transnav.eu

the

International Journal

Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 17

Number 4

December 2023

DOI: 10.12716/1001.17.04.

914

1 INTRODUCTION

Today, approximately 80% of global trade by volume

is carried by ships [1]. Competent seafarers have

always been, and still are, at the core of the shipping

industry. The achievement of the appropriate levels of

competency to operate ships safely, efficiently, and in

an environmentally-friendly manner has, in turn,

relied heavily on Maritime Education and Training

(MET) systems, whether national or global. The term

“Maritime Education and Training (MET)” is used in

this article in the narrow sense of the education and

training of seafarers leading to the achievement of the

relevant and necessary competencies for the safe and

efficient operation of ships. Furthermore, the term

“MET system” of a jurisdiction, in the context of this

paper, encompasses the legal norms, administrative

processes and procedures, and the actual conduct of

the delivery and assessment of seafarer education and

training in MET institutions in that jurisdiction as well

as the oversight of any associated onboard training,

leading to internationally recognized certificates.

Starting from moving boats using oars, to operating

sailing ships, to the use of external (steam turbine)

and internal combustion engines and finally to

operating contemporary highly sophisticated ship

propulsion and navigational equipment, hands-on

experience and on-the-job training (OJT) have played

a significant role in the development of seafarer

competence. The components of MET are both

education for theoretical knowledge and training for

the acquisition of practical skills. It is acknowledged

that practical training at sea is one of the most

effective training interventions necessary for seafarers

to obtain the relevant ship-operating skills [2]. In

practically all cases, apprenticeship and on-the-job

training are andragogical concepts. The two, while

pervasive across industry sectors (in particular in

vocational or quasi-vocational settings), differ in their

expression in specific industry settings. In the

maritime industry, a rich history/tradition of onboard

training has found expression in international law.

Per the International Convention on Standards of

Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for

Seafarers (STCW) promulgated under the auspices of

the International Maritime Organization (IMO), there

are specified periods for such “onboard training” for

different ranks on board ship, e.g., for obtaining a

certificate of competency for officers in charge of a

navigational watch on ships of 500 gross tonnage or

more [3]. The Convention was agreed upon in 1978,

with major amendments made in 1995 and 2010. It

prescribes minimum standards of training,

certification and watchkeeping for seafarers [4] and

today underpins the global governance regime for

ensuring seafarer competence. As of 01 June 2023, the

Convention has been ratified by 167 countries

representing 98.91% of the global merchant fleet [5].

For example, in the Convention and its

accompanying Seafarers’ Training, Certification and

Watchkeeping (STCW) Code, the minimum required

duration of onboard training as a part of mandatory

seagoing service for candidates for officers in charge

of a navigational watch (covered by Regulation II/1

and Section A-II/1) is prescribed as 12 months.

However, MET systems in different jurisdictions have

provided onboard training opportunities in different

formats, as evidenced by the practices of their

Maritime Education and Training Institutions (METIs)

used here to mean institutions that educate and train

seafarers. Most students of METIs develop theoretical

knowledge and practical skills in a shore-based

context, with opportunities for practical training on

board ships during and/or after the initial theoretical

education. Despite some similarities in this approach

across different jurisdictions, there are also significant

differences among different MET systems in the

specific implementation strategies for onboard

training, such as regarding timing (at what stage of

the educational process onboard training is

conducted) and duration (how long the training is

carried out). For instance, in the California State

University Maritime Academy in the United States of

America, students need to go on board the

institution’s training ship - “Golden Bear” - for two

months during their first school year, three months

during the third school year and two months during

the fourth year [6]. In the Maritime Institute Willem

Barentsz NHL Steden University of Applied Science

in the Netherlands, students go for onboard training

for five months during their third year of study and

the same during the fourth year, in both cases on

commercial vessels not owned/controlled by the

institution [7]. As the two examples illustrate, there is

also a difference in whether students are trained on

training ships belonging to the METIs or on

commercial vessels. These differences in

implementing onboard training appear to be

underpinned by different factors. The existence of

different historical, cultural and institutional factors,

or even national legislation perspectives, means that

each institution often employs different approaches to

designing and implementing onboard training

arrangements.

Onboard training has been argued to be the best

opportunity for students to learn and acquire the

necessary knowledge and skills in the context of their

professional environment under the supervision of

their senior officers [8]. The degree of practice and

participation of students and support by senior

officers are gradually varied to incrementally develop

the appropriate levels of knowledge and competence

of students. This process of skills development is

characteristic of most apprenticeship models, with

learning in the workplace being deemed as on-the-job

training. It can be assumed that the different

approaches of different MET systems to the

implementation of onboard training are

informed/influenced by implicit or explicit theoretical

understandings and assumptions. However, no study

has attempted to understand the different

arrangements for onboard training and, importantly,

the rationale, factors and learning theories that

underpin their use. To identify the rationale and

factors informing these different implementation

approaches from a theoretical perspective, there needs

to be, initially, an examination of how apprenticeship

and on-the-job training have been perceived in the

literature inside and outside the maritime domain.

This paper, therefore, employed a systematic

literature review to identify the theoretical

foundations of onboard training based on general

apprenticeship and on-the-job training models with

the aim of informing future empirical work

interrogating the practice of different

915

States/jurisdictions with respect to onboard training.

Knowledge about such theoretical underpinnings is

also of value in the discourse on whether onboard

training should be replaced by or augmented with

other forms of training, such as training on simulators

ashore [9], [10], an issue currently being considered by

the International Maritime Organization [11].

2 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Systematic Review

Due to the diversity of terminology and an increased

need for evidence-based research derived from

literature, a wide range of literature reviews have

been developed over time. Grant & Booth [12]

identified what, in their view, are the 14 most

common types of reviews and tried to make the

distinctions between them clearer and more

substantive. One of the most prominent is the

systematic review which has been extensively used,

particularly in the healthcare field [13]. A systematic

review is employed to answer a research question by

collecting evidence as reported in the literature, which

has been selected with specific eligibility criteria [14].

Through the systematic review, the researcher can

identify, compare and contrast available studies in a

relevant field and provide a comprehensive overview

of the state of any particular research discourse. In

1996, in recognition of the suboptimal reporting of

meta-analyses, an international group developed

guidelines and a statement on the “QUality of

Reporting of Meta-analysis (QUOROM).

Subsequently, in 2009, these guidelines were revised,

becoming the “ Preferred Reporting Items for

Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) [13].

In 2020, further refining of the guidelines/checklist

was completed [15]. This paper follows the guidance

provided by PRISMA 2020 in a bid to ensure the

authenticity and reliability of the findings. The

findings from the literature review are then

interrogated in the context of contemporary ship

operation and per the current requirements of the

STCW Convention, 1978, as amended.

2.2 Eligibility criteria used for literature selection

The study focused on literature addressing the

theoretical foundations of on-the-job training and

apprenticeship-based training. The scope of literature

was limited to peer-reviewed journals and conference

papers available in English and accessible from

academic databases. This limitation in scope was due

to the relatively higher authenticity and reliability of

the peer-review process as compared to the processes

underpinning the publication of other literature. Two

electronic databases, SCOPUS and EBSCO Discovery

Service, were searched to identify eligible studies.

These two databases were chosen because of 1)

institutional accessibility and 2) their performance in

comparison to other databases [16]. According to

Carrera-Riveira et al. [17], Scopus was, in 2022, the

largest existing multidisciplinary database. Together

with EBSCO Discovery Service, there was confidence

that a full integration of major and globally diverse

publication sources would be accessed.

The search terms used are indicated in Table 1.

Table 1. The categories of keywords used for searching

strategy

The searching strategy employed for this study

was: #7 (apprenticeship OR “on-the-job” OR

apprentice OR intern OR “work placement” OR

cadetship) AND #13 (theory OR theoretical OR

foundation OR principle OR basis) AND #16 (training

OR train) OR #22 (maritime OR marine OR seafarer

OR cadet OR onboard OR shipboard).

The exclusion and inclusion criteria are shown in

Table 2.

Table 2. Exclusion and inclusion criteria

A total of 3,476 studies were identified through the

first search on 25 November 2022 using the search

strategy described. 370 studies were excluded by

removing duplicates. Further, 2,277 studies were

excluded as they were not peer-reviewed articles or

written in English, thus not meeting the inclusion

criteria. After initial screening focusing on titles and

abstracts of the remaining 829 studies, 702 studies

were further excluded mainly because the scope of the

studies either did not include theoretical discussions

or the research informing the studies was not on

apprenticeship or on-the-job training. The final

evaluation of the remaining 127 studies for inclusion

in this review was conducted through careful reading

of the full text of the studies. Further to this and as

recommended by Gomersall et al. [18], the decision to

include/exclude any of the 127 papers was taken

based on the agreement of two researchers through

discussions. As a result, 82 studies were excluded

because 1) they were unrelated to education and

training or 2) they did not include theoretical

perspectives. Three more studies were included by

searching another database comprising of peer-

reviewed proceedings of conferences of the

International Association of Maritime Universities

(IAMU). This database was searched due to the fact

916

that the proceedings are a compilation of maritime-

related studies representing the work of the most

dominant global association of METIs with observer

status at the IMO.

Ultimately, a total of 48 studies were included in

the review.

Figure 1 shows the flow of the identification of

studies via databases.

Figure 1. The flow of identification of studies from the

databases

3 RESULTS, QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS AND

SYNTHESIS

Details of the included literature are appended to this

paper as Appendix A. After a thorough re-reading of

the full text of all included studies, the text was

thematically interrogated by applying qualitative

codes to key sections using the qualitative data

analysis and research software, ATLAS.ti version 22.

In this in vivo coding approach, the coding work was

first started by generating general terminological

codes from paragraphs of the studies, followed by

more specific codes applied in the second and third

cycles of the coding process. Through these processes,

codes were applied to references to learning theories

and to several other key terms. The identified theories

and terminologies (codes) were then categorised into

several themes. The thematic areas generated include:

1. Industrial context

2. Definitional perspectives of apprenticeship and on-

the-job training

3. Learning theories and process of learning

4. Guidance and support during the

apprenticeship/on-the-job training

The following sections give a description of each

identified theme.

3.1 Industrial context: Thematic description

One of the contexts where apprentice-based training

has been well recognised and employed as an

effective means of education and training is in the

healthcare industry [19]. This review identified

sixteen studies in the healthcare industry. Four

studies are about surgeon training [20]–[23] and four

about medical interns [24]–[27], with the remaining

related to education and training for emergency

medicine [28], medicine [29], [30], family medicine

[31], psychiatric rehabilitation providers [32],

physician [33], medical specialists [34] and nursing

[35]. Beyond the healthcare context, a wide variety of

industries also apply or take into consideration the

element of apprenticeship or on-the-job training for

competence-building. These include firm and retail

[36], [37], teaching professionals [38]–[41], hotels,

restaurants and leisure [42]–[44], military [45], [46],

the automobile industry [47], information science [48]

and the steel industry [49]. All studies in the maritime

context are related to education and training for

seafarers [8], [50]–[54]. Notably, however, no study

was found addressing the theoretical foundations of

apprenticeship/on-the-job training of seafarers in

particular.

3.2 Definitional perspectives of apprenticeship and on-the-

job training: Thematic description

Even though the searching strategy included the term

“apprenticeship” and “on-the-job training”, not all

studies provided precise definitions of these terms.

The term “apprenticeship” itself appears to have

different connotations in different contexts. From the

employment perspective, in an organisational setting,

it can be viewed as a period or specific contract for a

new employee. In contrast, from the perspective of the

learning process, the term can be viewed as

addressing a context within which a novice develops

competence. The literature identified several

perspectives on apprenticeship and on-the-job

training. Ertelt et al. [55] describe apprenticeship as

“the basis for the occupational career, which is

defined by the chosen vocation” (p. 2), while Ryan &

Unwin (as cited in [49]) refer to apprenticeship as:

“A structured programme of vocational

preparation, sponsored by an employer, juxtaposing

part-time education with on-the-job training and

work experience, leading to a recognised vocational

qualification at craft or higher level, and taking at

least two years to complete, after requisite general

education” (p. 409).

In general, the studies reviewed appear to

emphasise the employment dimension of

apprenticeship more than the learning processes and

theories that underpin the concept. However, in a

more general contribution by Matsuo [36], he

indicates that apprenticeship is “a key method for

passing down professional crafts and skills from one

generation to the next” (p. 229). This description

seems to have some relevance to the view of

apprenticeship as a process underpinned by specific

learning theories. Similarly, Phoyen & Boonroungrut

[56], in an examination of different views of

apprenticeship, define apprenticeship as “a process by

which learners learn from a more experienced person

by way of cognitive and metacognitive skills and

processes (e.g., assisting, providing support and

examples)” (p. 2570). In other literature, the aspect of

socialisation in the apprenticeship process is also

discussed. Kelly [22] highlights that apprenticeship

comprises a vital form of social induction into a

particular professional practice together with an

917

acquaintance with and development of relevant

technical expertise. Similarly, Guile and Young [57]

note that “apprenticeship has been viewed as a

process of socialisation into official or unofficial

workplace cultures and not explicitly as an approach

to learning” (p. 5). Unlike the differences in emphasis

on the different aspects of apprenticeship as described

in the preceding, the literature exhibits some

consensus in respect of the search term “on-the-job

training”. Jacobs & Jones (as cited in [36]) describe on-

the-job training as “a form of training that occurs at

the workplace during the performance of a job,

usually involving one-on-one instruction” (p. 225).

Bas [58] notes that on-the-job training “takes place at

an ordinary workplace and makes the task itself a part

of the instruction given and a means for the

acquisition of practical skill” (p. 1). Collins, Brown &

Newman (as cited in [54]) describe on-the-job training

as being the best part of the training in developing the

competencies to act successfully on the job. The

consensus position of the literature leads to a clear

definition of “on-the-job training”: training conducted

in the context of the workplace and in direct relation

to the conduct of the specific tasks a trainee needs to

be competent in.

3.3 Learning theories and process of learning: Thematic

description

With respect to the theme of learning theories, 16 out

of the 48 studies reviewed refer to “situated learning

theory”. Similarly, 16 studies also refer to “cognitive

apprenticeship”, five of which include references to

both “situated learning” and “cognitive

apprenticeship”. Three studies furthermore refer to

“situated learning”, “cognitive apprenticeship”, and

“zone of proximal development”. Some studies refer

to “experiential learning” and “social learning”, in

some cases used with other theories. As this study

aimed to identify the theoretical foundations of

onboard training as it relates to learning, this theme

was particularly relevant in the interrogation of the

literature. The most significant learning theory

emerging from the review (in terms of frequency of

mention) is “situated learning theory”, which was

originally proposed by Lave and Wenger [59].

Situated learning theory is a theory that sees learning

as taking place through a process of increasingly

legitimate participation in a community of practice,

from the periphery of that community to its core. The

term “community of practice” sees significant

mention in much of the literature reviewed, either

together with situated learning theory or alone. Khine

& Hartman [34], examining the influences of

disadvantaged backgrounds on learning and

professional development, suggest that learning can

only occur if students participate in and contribute to

the relevant community of practice while recognising

the importance of the role of mentors in

understanding the level of learning of students from

the perspective of the zone of proximal development.

Another study by Cope et al. [21] recognises the

effectiveness and importance of the situated learning

approach for constructing professional identity in

surgical training. They point out that the trend in

increasing duty hours potentially leads to insufficient

contact between trainer and trainee, which may result

in critical shortcomings for the surgical trainee in the

construction of their professional identity. Another

study [20] echoes this view, noting that fewer

opportunities for students to access a community may

lead to a non-effective situated nature of learning. In

Kelly’s view, this warrants the development of a new

apprenticeship model. Tsui & Chen [42], in their study

of the application of the cognitive apprenticeship

teaching approach to food and beverage service

training and the evaluation of learning satisfaction,

also highlight the importance of interaction between

students and teachers in a situated learning

environment. Ridzwan & Yasin [60] examine issues in

modern apprenticeship systems and identifies five

stages of the process of formation of skills. They

highlight that modern apprenticeship systems

emphasise cooperation between trainees and

instructors to develop a community of practice. Guile

and Young [57] examine workplace learning from

situated learning theory and zone of proximal

development points of view to seek a new perspective

on apprenticeship based on social learning theory.

One study on different Swedish apprenticeship

training programmes (post-secondary apprenticeship

(PSA) and upper secondary apprenticeship education

(USAE)) identifies the core assumption that the

occurrence of workplace learning is derived from a

community of practice [61]. A study on an

apprenticeship in an African car repair company

reports the learning process of apprenticeship by

highlighting the material aspect in the situated nature

of learning [47]. Li et al. [62] study how the concept of

communities of practice is used in the business and

healthcare sectors through a systematic literature

review. They note that structures of community of

practice within the two sectors significantly varied,

ranging from informal networks to formal education

and from apprenticeship training to project teams. In

the maritime context, two studies refer to situated

learning theory. Emad [8] suggests that the lack of

visible trace of work processes of digitalised

equipment onboard may restrict learning by

observation for seafarers and examines how enhanced

communities of practice are effective in maritime

education. He proposes an alternative framework, a

“quasi-community”, that is applicable to teaching and

learning in a formal setting. Similarly, in another

study, he examines how to create a community of

practice in classroom-based education in the maritime

context [52].

Cognitive apprenticeship, as proposed by Collins

and Brown [63], is also well recognised in the studies

reviewed. It is an instructional model inspired by

traditional apprenticeship in the school environment.

Several of the studies are related to the application of

the cognitive apprenticeship model in educational

settings. Cognitive apprenticeship differs from a

traditional apprenticeship; Lacy [39], for instance,

clearly differentiates traditional apprenticeship and

cognitive apprenticeship. She suggests that traditional

apprenticeship has limitations on what it can teach as

it is set in the workplace and focuses on teaching

skills, while cognitive apprenticeship “differs in that

the tasks and problems are chosen to illustrate the

effect and power of certain techniques and methods”

(p. 267), and it “emphasises generalising knowledge

so that it can be used in many different settings and

articulating the common principles so that students

918

learn how to apply their skills in varied contexts” (p.

267). There are several studies which attempt to apply

the cognitive apprenticeship model in different

contexts. For instance, Merrit et al. [28] explore a new

method of faculty development in emergency

medicine through the lens of the cognitive

apprenticeship model. The study by Tsui & Chen [42]

is also, as mentioned earlier, in principle about the

application of the cognitive apprenticeship teaching

approach to food and beverage service training and

the evaluation of learning satisfaction. There are also

similar studies on the applicability of the cognitive

apprenticeship model to competency-based teaching

development [38], teaching professionals [40], family

medicine [31] and Psychiatric Rehabilitation Provider

Training [32]. Although a study by Stalmeijer et al.

[26] reveals that the cognitive apprenticeship model

teaching is applicable to clinical education, they point

out that insufficient time for teaching or a lack of skills

for teaching impacts the effectiveness of such

education. Similarly, Khine & Hartman [34] highlight

the importance of guidance and support for the

learner to ensure the practical application of cognitive

apprenticeship. In the maritime domain, two studies

refer to cognitive apprenticeship. Emad & Oxford [53]

point out issues in the contemporary practice of

maritime education and training and propose

applying the cognitive apprenticeship model to this

formal learning setting. Reul [50] explains how cadet

training in shipping (onboard training) and simulator

training is perceived as cognitive apprenticeship

models of training in the maritime domain.

A related construct (to cognitive apprenticeship) is

Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Development” [64].

Vygotsky, in discussing learning and development in

children, defined the Zone of Proximal Development

(ZPD) as: “the distance between the actual

development level as determined by independent

problem solving and the level of potential

development as determined through problem solving

under adult guidance or in collaboration with more

capable peers.” (p. 86)

Not surprisingly, the concept (of ZPD) is also well

recognised in the studies reviewed. Kelly [22] refers to

the zone of proximal development in highlighting the

importance of determining the trainee’s level of

understanding and changing an individual’s

particular profile in the surgical training setting. In

the study of clinical education, Tran et al. [27] suggest

that early support by supervisors “would help to

flatten the shape of the early learning curve”, thus

preventing trainees’ burnout and attrition. Khine &

Hartman [34], however, in a critique of the concept,

indicate that it does not emphasise the personal

differences between mentor/trainer and

mentee/trainee as such differences (e.g., cultural and

racial differences) may affect the potential

development of the trainee. Guile & Young [57] study

the contemporary concern of vocational education

and training and identify “three different conceptions

of the “zone of proximal development” – the

“normative”, the “social” and the “transformational””

(p. 187) and propose reconceptualising apprenticeship

as a social learning theory. One study examining the

timing and manner in which support should be

provided for medical trainees suggests that

scaffolding and support are essential for trainees in

the early stage of the training as trainees have more

questions and need more advice from the zone of

proximal development point of view [27]. Emad &

Oxford [53], citing Vygotsky, note that coaching

assists students in going beyond what they could

accomplish by themselves.

There are six studies that refer to “experiential

learning”. Kolb [65] defines experiential learning as

“the process whereby knowledge is created through

the transformation of experience” (p. 38). A study by

Phoyen & Boonroungrut [56] proposes a systematic

and integrated model of apprenticeship, the so-called

“Enterprise Innovation-driven Apprenticeship

Programme”, which draws from experiential learning

as a theoretical base of the apprenticeship. The study

highlights experiential learning as one of the critical

learning theories relevant to the design of an

appropriate learning management system. Matsuo

[36], in his study on the instructional skills for on-the-

job training, refers to experiential learning and

highlights that excellent on-the-job trainers facilitate

learners’ experiential learning by defined and

reflective practice. Experiential learning is also

regarded as one of the adult learning theories in the

study of effective surgical education [23]. Ridzwan &

Yasin [60] highlight that experiential learning is the

key to individual skill development in the field of

vocational training. Kelly [22] also suggests that more

emphasis should be placed on experiential learning

for designing a supportive learning environment for

surgical training.

Although the number of studies in the maritime

domain is limited, situated learning theory, cognitive

apprenticeship, and zone of proximal development

are confirmed as the dominant theories in the

apprenticeship model training and on-the-job

training.

3.4 Significance of guidance and support during

apprenticeship/on-the-job training: Thematic

description

In the apprenticeship system, a novice learns craft

skills under the supervision of experts through

practice. There are several studies which highlight the

significance of the role of educators, supervisors and,

in some situations, even peers (more knowledgeable

others). Kelly [22], in her suggestions for designing an

appropriate learning environment for surgeons,

suggests developing a collaborative curriculum,

recognising the interchangeable roles of teacher and

learner. Another suggestion is to involve the wider

community and other clinicians in the teaching,

learning and assessments. Khine & Hartman [34], in a

study of medical speciality training, identify the

influence of the degree of guidance of consultants for

medical speciality trainees on the latter’s success in

qualification. The study describes how a group of

trainees who had sufficient support from their

consultants and formed relationships with peers in

different institutions qualified for the programme. In

contrast, another group of trainees who failed to

receive constant guidance from their supervisors due

to communication and socio-cultural barriers left the

programme without the requisite qualifications. In the

study, the qualified group of trainees indicated that

919

self-directed learning was one of the factors for their

success; however, they indicated that they still needed

guidance from consultants. The study further

identified that institutional support for consultants is

vital for providing appropriate support to their

trainees.

One study on General Practice Registrars in

Australia observed that learners need more advice in

the early stage of their learning. It notes that

“supervisor-led scaffolding and support is required

earlier in registrar training in order to facilitate the

potential of individual trainees to navigate and learn

from the transitional experience, rather than be

overwhelmed by it” [27, p. 10]. Similarly, in the

application of cognitive apprenticeship teaching, Tsui

& Chen [42] highlight the importance of the assistance

of the master to learners during the learning process.

Cope et al. [21] also highlight the importance of the

traditional apprenticeship model of providing a close

working relationship between the master and

apprentices and suggest that the role of the teacher is

to enhance the motivation of students to learn and

also to “continue to provide external motivators to

encourage sustained behaviour change” (p. 548). Ohta

et al. [31] also highlight the importance of regular

reflection and supportive teacher-student

relationships; consequently, the learner becomes self-

directed with the encouragement of teachers. Hamoen

et al. [29], in their study on online clinical workplace

learning, also highlight that a lack of continuous

relations between students and teachers leads to less-

than-optimal clinical training. Li et al. [62] conclude

from the conduct of a systematic literature review that

several studies highlight the importance of facilitators;

however, the review is unable to identify the actual

responsibility of facilitators. Ertelt et al. [55] point out

the importance of professional guidance, particularly

during career transition, and also emphasise the

strength of workplace learning as it provides

opportunities for novices to test their technical skills

under the guidance of practitioners. The study further

states that the role of mentors is essential in the

provision of appropriate guidance and support

during apprenticeship practice for promoting skills,

social competence and the pleasure of learning. The

significance of close cooperation and interaction is

also highlighted in the studies. Ridzwan & Yasin [60]

point out that modern apprenticeship emphasises

cooperation between learners and educators and sets

up a community of practice. Jaarsma et al. [47]

describe the role of the senior participants as being to

“primarily serve as intermediates, helping the

apprentice to find his or her way in the community of

practice by direct guidance or, more indirectly,

through being observed by them” (p. 441). The study

on instructional skills in Japanese firms confirms that

interaction between newcomers and supervisors plays

a crucial function in newcomers’ socialisation and

adaptation. J. van Zolingen (as cited in [36]) highlights

the role of the mentor in serving “as a behavioural

model, to provide feedback, arrange an adequate

environment for self-study, motivate trainees for self-

study and evaluate trainees’ progress on a regular

basis” (p. 229) and assumed that trainers who have

excellent instructional skills are deemed to be good

trainers. The study by Matsuo [36] concludes that

“excellent on-the-job trainers facilitate trainees’

experiential learning by stretching trainees’ objectives,

monitoring their progress, providing positive

feedback and promoting reflection of results more

frequently than non-excellent trainers” (p. 238). The

study further highlights that the approach improves

learners’ motivation and self-efficacy. Pylväs et al. [66]

similarly highlight that social support and positive

feedback are significant elements for learners’ study

and work success. According to Merritt et al. [28],

different levels of guidance are required for varying

levels of learners in the application of the cognitive

apprenticeship model in Emergency Medicine

education. Similarly, the importance of regular

reflection is highlighted;

“The teachers engaged them in discussions about

patient management, during which the students

reflected on their feelings and challenges. This process

helped them understand how the teachers perceived

their roles and how to fulfill their demands. The

teachers modified their teaching styles and ways of

interacting with the participants based on the

reflections.” [31, p. 37]

According to Fjellström & Kristmansson [61], in

the Swedish education system, the roles of

supervisors differ depending on educational level.

The supervisor in a USEA (upper secondary

apprenticeship education) is in charge of

communicating learning issues and finding an

appropriate task related to the course syllabi, while in

a PSA (post-secondary apprenticeship) context, an

experienced colleague is a supervisor who guides the

learner to full participation in the community. In

acknowledging the fact that workplace goals and

apprenticeships’ personal goals are differently

initiated, the authors highlight that guidance from

experienced colleagues is crucial. On the contrary, one

study identifies that cooperation, support and

assessment from peers are more important than the

role of supervisor [33].

In the maritime context, Emad & Oxford [53] point

out that the lack of supervision and unwillingness of

the crew and shipping company to get directly

involved in training is one of the challenges for cadets

when they undergo onboard training. They raise the

issue that limited opportunities for the cadet to

participate in activities onboard may lead to failure in

reaching the required levels of competence. In the

same vein, Evidente & Estimo [54] concluded that the

quality of experiences from onboard training depends

on the officers who are assigned to training the cadets.

The two studies illustrate how the quality of training

depends on the crew on board, noting, however, that

the crew on board have their own responsibility in the

busy schedule of a ship [53] and they may not be

trained to do so.

Although proper guidance and assistance are

critical for skill development, several studies indicate

that self-directed learning could be a supplement for

development. For instance, Khine & Hartman [34]

suggests that self-directed learning can be an

alternative way to reach a certain level of knowledge

and skill when appropriate guidance is unavailable.

Similarly, Matsuo & Nakahara [67] highlight that

direct supervision has the potential to enhance

individual learning, although it may limit novices

from generating and sharing ideas in the workplace.

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It is noteworthy that apart from references to the

STCW Convention in the maritime literature, none of

the studies reviewed identify or discuss the role of

legal standards (national or international) on the

nature of apprenticeship and/or on-the-job training.

This can be argued to be a very important concept

when apprenticeship on board ship is interrogated

and therefore is included in the next section of this

paper which discusses the findings.

4 DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to examine the

theoretical foundations and principles of

apprenticeship and on-the-job training. The

systematic literature review identified 48 studies

drawn from a wide variety of industries which

examine the theoretical elements of apprenticeship

and on-the-job training. Neither the few maritime

studies nor any other studies focus particularly on the

theoretical foundations of onboard training

specifically. In general, the literature addressed three

apprenticeship-related “dimensions” – the

employment dimension, the learning dimension, and

the socialisation dimension. Further to these, a

number of concepts/issues are present in the wider

literature that could - taken together holistically – help

in the articulation of a comprehensive theoretical

framework underpinning onboard training on ships.

4.1 Relevant concepts arising from the review and their

applicability to the onboard training

Among the significant concepts/issues to be

considered in the maritime context are the

applicability of the following to onboard training:

1. Career development and employment

2. Cognitive apprenticeship theory

3. Experiential learning theory

4. Situated learning theory

5. The Zone of Proximal Development

6. Social learning theory

7. Materiality in social and situated learning

8. Mentoring and guidance structures

9. Self-directed learning

10. Legal standards and requirements (national and/or

international)

In this section of the paper, a discussion is

undertaken of these concepts/issues, their relation to

onboard training on ships and their contribution

to/implications for a theoretical framework aimed at

interrogating such training as a manifestation of

apprenticeship/on-the-job training.

4.1.1 The career development and employment element of

onboard training

In ship operation – a complex and highly

competence-driven context – onboard experience (and

the explicit or implicit training inherent) is expressed

as “seagoing service” and forms an essential part of

professional development, ranking and operational

responsibilities.

For officers holding Certificates of Competency as

defined in the STCW Convention, progression with

respect to levels of responsibilities (from operational

to management level) is predicated on the completion

of a seagoing service which is tantamount to on-the-

job training. The first step of gaining the first

operational level CoC is patently an apprenticeship

period for the development of the requisite

competencies. Indeed, the Convention defines

“seagoing service” as “service on board a ship

relevant to the issue or revalidation of a certificate or

other qualification”, thus linking such service

(apprenticeship/on-the-job training) to the

qualifications that ensure career progression. As such

this concept is critical as a constituent element of any

theoretical framework underpinning onboard training

on ships.

4.1.2 The applicability of the cognitive apprenticeship

As highlighted in the preceding section, this

review identified a number of studies which attempt

to apply the cognitive apprenticeship model of

learning in different contexts [30], [38], [44], in

particular in the healthcare field [26], [28], [32], [35].

From the identified studies and their conclusions, the

effectiveness of the model should not be

underestimated. These studies, however, also

highlighted that the unavailability of experts in skills

development might affect the effectiveness of this

model of instruction [32], and experts may have

difficulties in providing sufficient guidance if there is

a large number of learners [35], [40]. As Reul [50]

clearly described, cadetship (onboard training) is a

context where the cognitive apprenticeship model has

been applied. If all components of the sequence of

learning are successfully incorporated into the

workplace, either on training ships or commercial

ships, this model is particularly effective for the

learning and development of the competence of

cadets. However, operational factors such as the fast

turnaround of ports, the small size of the crew, the

unwillingness of the crew to teach their cadets and

insufficient knowledge of officers about pedagogy

and learning [53], as well as differences in level or

type of experiences among cadets [50] may also affect

the learning experience and outcome for the cadets.

4.1.3 The applicability of experiential learning theory

Several of the studies reviewed refer to

“experiential learning”. The study on the instructional

skills of on-the-job trainers highlights that excellent

on-the-job trainers facilitate learners’ experiential

learning by defined and reflective practice [36]. Kolb

[65] defines experiential learning as “the process

whereby knowledge is created through the

transformation of experience” (p.38). As highlighted

by Ridzwan & Yasin [60], experiential learning is the

key to individual skill development in the field of

vocational training. Engagement in the practical

elements of maritime education and training in

general, and onboard training in particular, are

regarded as the most effective means for skill

development for seafarers [2]. The training on board a

ship is where students are first exposed to the real

work environment. Any kind of experience on board

can be a concrete experience for students to get used

921

to being in the life onboard. For successful knowledge

creation in the experiential learning theory, four

elements: concrete experience, reflective observation,

abstract conceptualization, and active

experimentation are necessary [65]. However, as

suggested by Evidente & Estimo [54] in the first

instance, the quality of cadets’ experience is highly

dependent on the ship’s senior officers. If cadets do

not have sufficient supervision from senior officers,

they may encounter difficulties in conducting

reflective observations for example. Although the

learning cycle may be achieved by individual cadets

alone, less experienced cadets still need guidance and

support from senior officers both in regard to the

primary concrete experience and active

experimentation to gain optimum competency

outcomes. With proper supervision and appropriate

guidance, cadets create knowledge through

experiential learning cycle and thereby build

competence from their practical experiences.

4.1.4 The applicability of the situated learning theory

Situated learning theory, as proposed by Lave and

Wenger, was also widely referred to in the identified

studies. The critical components of this theory are the

notion of a community of practice and the process of

progressive participation in such a community from

the periphery to the central community while

constructing identity [59]. Cope et al. [21] identify that

identity construction depends on social aspects,

including the training environment. They observed

that learners in the medical field start as assistants,

and then through participating, they take more central

roles. However, they also pointed out that operational

characteristics of the work environment, such as

increased duty hours, could lead to insufficient

contact between trainers and trainees and fewer

opportunities to access a community, which may

result in the non-effective situated nature of learning.

This view was also supported by Kelly [20]. On ships,

the situated learning experiences and the

communities they are exposed to may differ based on

whether the onboard training is in the context of a

purpose-built training ship or on commercial ships.

On the former, cadets may create their own (cadets’)

community engaging with training officers in the

school mindset. This environment can be argued to be

very different from that on commercial ships where

the cadet, while not explicitly a crew member by law,

may nevertheless have duties and responsibilities in

cooperation with a professional seafarer community

whose primary focus is not the training of the cadet.

The cadets participate in the “real” community where

experienced and professional seafarers work. The

cadets’ “migration” from the periphery of this

professional community to the centre, as they gain the

necessary skills and competencies, increasingly

constructing their identities as seafarers and

ultimately as they reach the competence level to be

certified officers, is clearly indicative of the movement

described by Lave and Wenger. In both training ship

and commercial ship contexts, this movement is

present. However, the communities into which the

cadet is assimilated differ with advantages and

disadvantages apparent in both.

4.1.5 The applicability of the social learning

Albert Bandura’s novel learning theory, social

learning, albeit not much referred to in the studies, is

also found to be a key theory in apprenticeship and

on-the-job training [47]. Social learning theory

hypothesises that learning occurs through observation

and modelling. However, it is only possible when

there is attention, retention, reproduction, and

motivation [68]. Matsuo & Nakhara [67], for instance,

explicitly highlighted this aspect as follows: “OJT [on-

the-job training] includes providing employees with

spontaneous explanations or demonstrations related

to their job responsibilities and enabling them to

subsequently hone their skills by trial-and-error

learning or by observing and imitating the behaviors

of others” (p. 198). This explains the learning process

of social learning in the workplace learning explicitly.

Shipboard training provides opportunities for cadets

to observe their senior officers' practice and then to

have opportunities to model that practice. It is,

however, essential to note that per this theory,

learners need to be motivated to learn [21]. It is also

suggested that improper guidance may discourage

learners from learning [40]. The theory suggests that

in the onboard training of seafarers, it is important to

understand the interrelation between activities by

learners (observing, modelling, trial) and the

motivation of the learners in the context of onboard

training.

4.1.6 The applicability of the Zone of Proximal

Development and the “More Knowledgeable Other”

(MKO)

While Vygotsky applied his concept of the Zone of

Proximal Development to children, it is obvious that

the concept as such has applications to adult learning

in general (see, for example, [22], [57]) as well as to

apprenticeship and on-the-job training in particular.

In the context of this paper and with respect to

onboard training, the word “adult” in his definition

can be replaced by “supervisor”, “trainer” or a similar

term such as “More Knowledgeable Other” (MKO) as

used by Abtahi [69], [70]. The modelling behaviour of

the “expert”/MKO in the ZPD theory is obviously

akin to the social influence of the community of

practice when moving from the periphery to the core

in situated learning theory. Indeed, Vygotsky’s ZPD is

derived from a socio-cultural understanding of

learning emphasising the importance of social

interaction [64]. In addition, proper support and

scaffolding are necessary, especially for students in

their early stages of learning [27]. The theory is also

applicable to the interrogation of cadets’ experiences

in the early stage of their training period when they

may not be familiar with the ship environment.

Without proper guidance and an appropriate level of

support, the safety of cadets may even threaten what

is often a hazardous operational context. Support and

guidance are critical components for learning from the

perspective of the zone of proximal development, and

per the theory, that support/guidance should take

cognizance of the trainee’s level of understanding at

any particular time and link the appropriate level of

tasks given to cadets to that level of understanding.

922

4.1.7 The notion of materiality in social and situated

learning

The study by Jaarsma [47] highlighted the

importance of materiality in social learning. They

shed light on how the material nature of a car repair

company had a substantial impact on informal

apprenticeship training. Although this aspect was not

explicitly found in other studies in this review, it is

apparent that the learning environment significantly

impacts the apprenticeship and on-the-job. Some,

albeit not explicitly, have identified the importance of

the learning environment, including training facilities

[71] and an authentic environment [26], [56]. Emad

[52] pointed out that the physical layout of the

classroom impacts learning. During onboard training

context, cadets are exposed to the real and holistic

environment (the authentic environment), including

navigation instruments, cargo handling equipment,

life-saving appliances, etc., all in active operation.

These “materials” include the physical equipment

(hardware and software) for operating the ship. The

influence of materiality on human cognition (artefacts,

objects) has long been recognised (see for example,

[72], [73] and [74]). Material things have a significant

influence on learning and behaviour. In the case of

seafarers, who live and work in the full presence of

their working materials, situated learning appears to

be imperative for gaining of the requisite operational

competencies at a sufficiently in-depth level of

knowledge. In the operational shipping context,

learning is not only associated with the existence and

operation of the material

artefacts/objects/things/equipment in the work

environment but also the responsibility for their

operation and maintenance. It is often the case that

officers have specific responsibility for one or more of

these materials. Through their social learning

experience and with particular reference to

materiality, cadets learn both the

operation/maintenance of these materials and the

taking of the responsibility associated with such

operation/maintenance. It is noteworthy that such

responsibility is often associated with outcomes that

relate to life-death situations. Materiality in authentic

environments should therefore be a critical

consideration in theorizing about shipboard training.

4.1.8 The place of mentoring and guidance structures

As was highlighted in the preceding sections,

appropriate guidance and support for the learners are

critical components in the context of apprenticeship

and on-the-job training. Not surprisingly, there are a

number of studies which showed the importance of

guidance and support for apprenticeship and on-the-

job training, which was highlighted in the preceding

sections. In this review, learning theories, situated

learning, cognitive apprenticeship and zone of

proximal development are well referred to. Trainers,

supervisors, or more knowledgeable others are

necessary components of these learning theories,

albeit the level and nature of guidance structures

differ. As highlighted by Jaarsma [47], the role of

senior participants is to help the apprentices find their

way in the community of practice by modelling

actions and behaviours. There are also studies that

highlight the role of the supervisor in motivating

students and taking into account their level of

knowledge [26], teachers' ability [23], social support

and positive feedback [40], and professional guidance

[55] for successful learning. It was, however, also

pointed out that the lack of sustained relationship

between students and teachers [29], lack of

constructive feedback [22], the limited access of the

trainees to “trainers" due to service (operational)

pressure [20], communication barriers between

supervisors and learners and insufficient time for

coaching and mentoring due to overworked staff [34],

could all lead to improper learning opportunities for

learners. The onboard training environment is argued

to be the best place for students to holistically learn all

technical skills and the relevant disciplines on a ship

in a real-life authentic environment. However, the

environment and operational conditions may not

always be ideal for learning. Although this may differ

between training on ships designated as training ships

and that on commercial ships, there are usually

experienced (senior) seafarers or dedicated training

instructors who are supposed to give guidance from

the very beginning through the entire period of their

training (e.g., 12 months in the case of deck officers for

the first certificate of competence). The role of those

senior officers is to be mentors, supervisors, teachers,

and more knowledgeable others to give guidance,

support, and help cadets joining the community.

Optimal onboard training, from a theoretical

perspective, will therefore have to incorporate

structured and sufficient guidance and support from

those senior officers with opportunities for learners to

observe modelled behaviour and build close

relationships with their seniors without

communication barriers. However, as highlighted by

several researchers [50], [53], [54], cadets’ learning is

threatened by improper or inadequate supervision or

guidance by senior officers, a situation exacerbated by

significant operational demands in the maritime

industry and smaller crew sizes, similar to the

situation observed in the medical/surgical training

context pointed out by Cope et al. [21].

4.1.9 The place of self-directed learning

The literature discussion on the significance of

guidance and support during the apprenticeship/on-

the-job training also highlights self-directed learning

as being a supplemental or alternative way to learn in

case there is no or limited guidance or support [34].

Per the cognitive apprenticeship model (discussed

earlier in section 4.1.2), many factors affect the

learning process, including insufficient feedback, lack

of time available, and the unwillingness of crew to

train in particular in the maritime context. However,

as mentioned in the introduction of this paper,

seafarer education and training under the STCW

Convention are essentially andragogical in nature.

While not explicitly mentioned in any of the papers

reviewed, an interrogation of Knowles’ assumptions

underpinning adult learning shows a clear

relationship with many of the concepts and theories

discussed in the literature.

1. Adult learners, from a natural process of

maturation, move from dependency in a learning

situation toward increasing self-directedness. This

is clearly linked to the migration from the

923

periphery to the core of a community of practice as

described in Vygotsky’s ZPD.

2. In the process of maturation, learners accumulate a

“reservoir” of experience which they bring to

subsequent learning experiences and attach more

value to learning gained from experience. One can

see links between this and Kolb’s experiential

learning theory.

3. Adult learners approach learning from a need-to-

learn basis e.g., linked to career development and

the need to develop skills for the carrying out of

practical professional tasks. This tendency is often

related to the career development and

employment element of apprenticeship. The

output/performance element is key to any

competency-based professional setting as ship

operation is.

4. Following on from #3, adult learners are

accordingly internally motivated. This motivation

sustains the self-directedness presented in

Knowles’ first assumption.

It is therefore clear that both self-directedness and

internal motivation on the part of trainees/apprentices

are key considerations for theorising about onboard

training. This is necessary, as pointed out by some of

the (maritime) literature in this review, to inform an

interrogation into the degree to which apprentices in

the maritime context (cadets) are motivated and self-

directed - in particular in the circumstances where

learning opportunities are limited due to the

unwillingness of crew to teach, the small size of crew,

a short turnaround of ports, and other operational

constraints. Also necessary is the examination of the

extent to which such self-directed learning can be

safely resorted to, for example, when it comes to the

operation of critical equipment. Irrespective of any

such limits to self-directed learning, it remains - with

appropriate guidance and support - important for

competency development in apprenticeship in general

[34], [48] and in onboard training in particular.

4.2 Legal standards and requirements (national and/or

international)

It is worth noting from the review that in many

jurisdictions, the apprenticeship process is deemed to

be a substantive part of a career development process

and may be part of an explicit formal educational

system. While the studies do not specifically mention

this, it is normal jurisdictional practice that

educational systems are underpinned by law most

often at the national level. This is clearly the case with

the maritime industry where the primary expression

of apprenticeship (onboard training of cadets) is

explicitly indicated in the text of international law

(primarily the STCW Convention) and implemented

at a national level through national law via ratification

of the international instrument [3]. What appears to be

missing in the implementation of this legal

requirement, is the consideration of the concepts

unearthed in this review in the design and delivery of

onboard training mechanisms and strategies. Per the

STCW Convention, all sea service must be

“approved” meaning “approved by the Party (i.e.,

ratifying State) in accordance with the regulations of

the Convention”. Approvals in this context relate to

the exercise of authority in these matters by a State

party to the convention. Ideally, State practice in

granting such “approvals” should be premised on the

application of the relevant theoretical framework such

as may result from the review in this paper in order to

ensure that onboard training is optimum and serves

the purpose and spirit of the legal requirements of the

Convention.

4.3 Interaction between the different domains of learning

and macro learning theories

Surprisingly, none of the papers reviewed explicitly

discussed the domains of learning (cognitive,

psychomotor and affective) in their applicability to

apprenticeship, nor do they explicitly address the

main macro learning theories of cognitivism,

constructivism, behaviourism or connectivism. It can

be argued, however, that the learning domains are an

important consideration when developing a

theoretical framework through which onboard

training may be examined. Regarding the macro

learning theories, arguably, the cognitive

apprenticeship theory falls under the broader notion

of cognitivism as does the learning styles approach

advocated by Kolb. Similarly, elements of Vygotsky’s

theories, self-directed learning, as well as experiential

learning, situated learning and social learning may be

aligned with constructivism and connectivism. The

motivational and psychological aspects of

apprenticeship learning and onboard practices of

drills and repeated practices may be argued to have

leanings toward behaviourism. The stimuli-response

process of behaviourism is otherwise not very obvious

in a theoretical discussion of onboard training.

4.4 A theoretical definition of onboard training

The STCW Convention, 1978, as amended, describes

“onboard training” as used in its regulations II/1, III/1

and III/6, as covering approved seagoing service as

part of an approved training programme. Despite the

existence of this description in international law, there

is no theoretical definition of the concept that will

support its theoretical and academic analysis and its

practical implementation. Considering, therefore, all

the elements that have emerged from this work, the

notion of onboard training on ships can be defined

holistically and from a theoretical point of view as “an

expression of career-related apprenticeship in the

maritime industry (ship operation) where an

individual/learner/novice is immersed in a learning

process situated in the operational reality of a

community of practice (CoP) exhibiting a high degree

of materiality and where the individual’s learning,

while being self-driven/self-directed, is framed by the

influence of “more knowledgeable others”, mentoring

structures and institutional support that together

facilitate the movement of the novice from the

periphery of the CoP to its core through the

acquisition and continuous development of relevant

positive knowledge, skills and attitudes”.

It is noteworthy that, while this definition may or

may not be warranted by law (whether at the national

or international law), the legal status of the

apprenticeship, in and of itself, is not germane to the

definition of the construct.

924

Figure 2 is a conceptualisation of a theoretical

framework arising from this definition and the

discussions in this paper.

Figure 2. Conceptualisation of a theoretical framework

In light of this definition and framework, future

interrogation of the administration, design and

practice of onboard training, whether at the national,

institutional or shipboard levels, as well as the

interrogation of any changes to onboard training

arrangements arising from the introduction of

technology on ships (for example in relation to

different levels of automation), should consider how

the elements inherent in the definition are addressed.

Such considerations should also exist in educational

settings ashore when examining the merits of shore-

based interventions to augment onboard training

(e.g., with simulation).

The above discussion is premised on human

presence onboard ships for operational purposes.

5 IMPLICATIONS

It is evident from the elucidation of a theoretical

foundation for and definition of onboard training that

the practice of States in respect of their

implementation of the international law regulating

onboard training (STCW regulation II/1, III/1 and III/6,

for example), as anecdotally reported, is not always

aligned to optimum best-practice. The theoretical

issues raised in this paper are not always exhaustively

applied in the design and implementation of onboard

training programmes. Future research should seek to

1) examine the accuracy of this assertion, 2) explore

the degree to which the practice of States aligns with

the framework, and 3) explore methods, models and

procedures that can improve the application of

practices that are well-informed theoretically on a

global scale. Furthermore, the clear trend in global

education towards the

“atomisation/individualisation” of learning – with the

increased internet-mediated focus on

self/independent learning should be challenged (in

particular when it comes to apprenticeship) in light of

situated and social learning theories. For example,

where simulators are considered as a replacement

and/or augmentation of actual sea experience onboard

ship, the theoretical issues raised in this paper – ZPD,

social learning, mentoring, materiality etc. – should be

very well addressed.

6 LIMITATIONS

This review is based on a search of the indicated

electric databases. The possibility of missing valuable

studies from other sources, such as the book chapters

and studies which are not available in the electric

format, cannot be obviated. Furthermore, the

searching strategy applied to this review is limited to

the “theoretical” perspective of apprenticeship and

on-the-job training; it cannot be denied that there may

be possibilities of identifying studies related to the

practical rationale for the apprenticeship or on-the-job

training. In the screening, some studies were excluded

because they were not studies from a theoretical

perspective. However, the elements that go into

optimum onboard training will include practical and

jurisdictional issues that may go beyond the

theoretical areas explored in this work. It may be

desirable to undertake research in the future, which

includes studies that inquire into these factors.

7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

Onboard training is one of the most effective means of

training for seafarers. It is, among other things, critical

for METIs to ensure the quality of onboard training

provided for their students. This systematic literate

review aimed to identify the theoretical foundation of

apprenticeship and on-the-job training. Through the

review, while we found 48 studies from a wide range

of industries, there was no study which focused on

the theoretical foundations of onboard training.

However, it is confirmed that three learning theories,

situated learning, cognitive apprenticeship, and the

zone of proximal development, are deemed to be

dominant theories for apprenticeship and on-the-job

training. This review also found that different

perspectives on apprenticeship and on-the-job

training and the process of learning and guidance and

support are critical components of apprenticeship and

on-the-job training. Through discussing the elements,

such as the applicability of the learning theories and

essential factors to achieve successful learning, a

theory-informed definition of onboard training was

determined. Acknowledging the effectiveness of the

application of these theories for education and

training in different industries, future research should

explore how these factors are manifested or

considered by seafarer education and training

jurisdictions when they select specific onboard

training strategies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research is funded by the Nippon Foundation and is a

foundational piece in a larger project exploring the practice

of States as related to seafarer education and training.

The authors both have substantial academic and

professional experience as seafarers.

925

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APPENDIX – LIST OF REVIEWED STUDIES

Author

Year

Title

Publication

Industry

Research aim

1 Bas 1989 On-the-Job Training in Africa.

International Labour

Review

Wickerwork,

carpentry and

jewellery

2 Bates et al. 2012

The Cognitive Apprenticeship Model: Implications for

its use in Psychiatric Rehabilitation Provider Training.

Journal of Rehabilitation Health care

Application of Cognitive

Apprenticeship to Psychiatric

Rehabilitation Provider training

3 Chan et al. 2009

Cognitive Apprenticeship as an Instructional Strategy

for Solving Corporate Training Challenges.

TechTrends: Linking

Research & Practice to

Improve Learning

Business

Application of Cognitive

Apprenticeship for corporate

training

4 Cope et al. 2017

What Attitudes and Values Are Incorporated into Self

as Part of Professional Identity Construction When

Becoming a Surgeon?

Academic Medicine Health care

Study on different perspectives

on apprenticeship at their

advantage and limitation

Duemmler

and Caprani

2017

Identity Strategies in Light of a Low-Prestige

Occupation: The Case of Retail Apprentices

Journal of Education and

Work

Business

The analysis of identity

construction strategies in retail

apprentices

6 Emad 2010

Introduction of technology into workplace and the

need for change in pedagogy

Procedia -

Social and

Behavioral Sciences

Maritime

Study on the seafarers’

acquisition of discipline-based

knowledge at maritime

institution

7 Emad 2010

Tracing legitimate learning in formal vocational

education

Procedia -

Social and

Behavioral Sciences

Maritime

The analysis of competency

development process of mariners

in the vocational education and

training system

Emad and

Oxford

2008 Rethinking Maritime Education and Training Proceeding of the IMLA Maritime

The investigation on the current

issues in maritime education and

training system

9 Emad 2021

Reforming Professional Education: A Case of

Cognitive Human Factor/Human Element in Shipping

Industry

Advances in Human

Factors in Training,

Education, and Learning

Sciences

Maritime

The examination of the

conventional and emerging

workplace learning

opportunities in the maritime

context

10 Ertelt et al. 2021

Apprenticeships as a Unique Shaping Field for the

Development of an Individual Future-Oriented

"Vocationality".

Sustainability

Vocational

Education and

Training in

general

The analysis of curriculum to

identify learning outcomes in

apprenticeship

Evidente and

Estimo

2014

Lived Experiences of Maritime Cadets: Their First

Encounter Onboard Multicrewing Vessels

Proceeding of the IAMU Maritime

The study on the realities of the

onboard training from the point

of view of cadets

Fjellström and

Kristmansson

2019 Constituting an apprenticeship curriculum

Journal of Curriculum

Studies

Vocational

Education and

Training in

general

The analysis of curriculum to

identify learning outcomes in

apprenticeship

Fuller and

Unwin

2013

Learning as apprentices in the contemporary UK

workplace: creating and managing expansive and

restrictive participation

Journal of Education and

Work

Steel industry

The analysis of the valuable

learning opportunities in

different approaches under the

modern apprenticeship

Ghofranipour

et al.

2018

Improving interns' patient-physician communication

skills: Application of self-efficacy theory, a pilot study.

Cogent Psychology Health care

The evaluation of the effect of

self-eff

icacy theory on the

interns’ communication skills

development

Glogoff and

Flynn

1987

Developing a systematic in-house training program

for integrated library systems

College and Research

Libraries

Information

Science

The investigation of possibilities

of computer-assisted training in

surgery

16 Gorman et al. 2000 Computer-assisted training and learning in surgery Computer Aided Surgery Health care

Examination of effective teacher

education for special educational

needs

17 Greer et al. 2016

Helping Doctoral Students Teach: Transitioning to

Early

Career Academia through Cognitive

Apprenticeship

Higher Education

Research and

Development

Teaching

professional

The application of cognitive

apprenticeship for teaching

development for doctoral

candidates

uile and

Young

1998

Apprenticeship as a conceptual basis for a social

theory of learning

Journal of Vocational

Education and Training

Vocational

Education and

Training in

general

The discussion on the

reconceptualization of

apprenticeship in vocational

education and training

19 Hamoen et al. 2022

Design and First Impressions of a Small Private

Online Course in Clinical Workplace Learning:

Questionnaire and Interview Study

JMIR Medical Education Health care

The evaluation of the effect of

small private online course in the

cli

nical internship in internal

medicine

20 Høifødt et al. 2007

A qualitative study of the learning processes in young

physicians treating suicidal patients: From insecurity

to personal pattern knowledge and self-confidence

BMC Medical Education Health care

The analysis of the learning

experience of newly educated

physicians’ learning process

21 Jaarsma et al. 2011

The Role of Materiality in Apprenticeships: The Case

of the Suame Magazine, Kumasi, Ghana

Journal of Vocational

Education and Training

Automobiles

Study on the role of materiality

in informal apprenticeship

training

22 Kelly 2006

Too busy to think, too tired to learn' - the attrition of

the apprenticeship model of surgical training in the

United Kingdom

Educate~ Health care

Evaluating the current hospital-

based clarkship training, and

proposing the new models of

training

Khine and

Hartman

2021

Significance of relationships in the cognitive

apprenticeship of medical specialty training.

African Journal of Health

Professions Education

Health care

Evaluating the influences of

disadvantaged backgrounds on

the learning and professional

development

24 Lacy 2012

Learning Transactional Analysis Through Cognitive

Apprenticeship

Transactional Analysis

Journal

Teaching

professional

The analysis of the relationship

of cvognitive apprenticeship and

transactional analysis in

teaching, training and

supervision

25 Li et al. 2009

Use of communities of practice in business and health

care sectors: A systematic review

Implementation Science

usiness and

health care

The systematic literature review

of use of community of practice

in business and health care

928

sector

26 Liu 2005

Web-Based Cognitive Apprenticeship Model for

Improving Pre-Service Teachers' Performances and

Attitudes towards Instructional Planning: Design and

Field Experiment

Educational Technology

& Society

Teaching

professional

The application of the web-based

cognitive apprenticeship for pre-

service teachers

27 Massé et al. 2020

Transformative medical education: Must community-

sed traineeship experiences be part of the

curriculum? A qualitative study

International Journal for

Equity in Health

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The examination of learning

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Matsuo and

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The effects of the PDCA cycle and OJT on workplace

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International Journal of

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Fire and insurance

The examination of the effect of

the PDCA cycle and on-the-job

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29 Matsuo 2014

Instructional Skills for On-the-Job Training and

Experiential Learning: An Empirical Study of Japanese

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International Journal of

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The study on the characteristics

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30 Merritt et al. 2017

A Cognitive Apprenticeship-

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Western Journal of

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The application of cognitive

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31 Motta et al. 2017

Co-regulations of learning in small groups of chef

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Empirical Research in

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Hotels,

Restaurants &

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The analysis of development of

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Professional desires and career decisions: Effects of

professional interests, role models, and internship in

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International Journal for

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Vocational

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The examination of influence of

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33 Ohta et al. 2021

Strengths and challenges for medical students and

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Family Medicine Health care

The evaluation of changing

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34 Patrick et al. 2012

Being in one's chosen job determines pre-training

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Military

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Enterprise Innovation-

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The analysis of theoretical basis

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36 Pinelli et al. 2018

Identifying the presence of cognitive apprenticeship in

the layered learning practice model

American Journal of

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The examination of the presence

of cognitive apprenticeship in

the layered learning practice

model in health context

37 Pylväs et al. 2022

Vocational Students’ Perceptions of Self-Regulated

Learning in Work-Based VET

Vocations and Learning

Social and

healthcare,

business and

administration,

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The evaluation of vocation

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38 Rashid 2017

Surgical education and adult learning: Integrating

theory into practice

F1000Research Health care

The evaluation of adult learning

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39 Reul 2015 Maritime Training Through the Use of Simulators Proceeding of the IAMU Maritime

Study on effective maritime basic

training from the theoretical

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40 Ridzwan et al 2015

From training institution to workplace: Towards a

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The examination of factors for

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Cultivating Learning: A Grounded Theory of Skills

Acquisition for Vocation in Modern Apprenticeships

Procedia -

Social and

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Vocational

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The analysis of skills acquisition

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42 Robinson 2017

Effective inclusive teacher education for special

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43 Roth et al. 2014

The theory-practice gap: Epistemology, identity, and

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Electricians,

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maritime

Study on theory-practice gap in

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Schmidt and

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Development of a Graduate Education Program for

U.S. Army Interns and Careerists

New Directions for Adult

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Cognitive Apprenticeship in Clinical Practice: Can It

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46 Tran et al. 2022

Transitions in general practice training: quantifying

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BMC Medical Education Health care

The examination of variation in

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Tsui and

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Sustainable development of hotel food and beverage

service training: Learning satisfaction with the

situated cognitive apprenticeship approach

Sustainability

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Hotels,

Restaurants &

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Exploration of impact of

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beverage service training

48 Wu et al. 2012

A context-aware mobile learning system for

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Educational Technology

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Health care

The study on application of

combination of cognitive

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context-aware mobile learning

system for nursing skills training