International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 3

Number 1

March 2009

The Present and Expected Changes in Maritime

Safety, Security and Defense Functions

J. Urbanski, W. Morgas & M. Miesikowski

Polish Naval Academy, Gdynia, Poland

1 INTRODUCTION

Each maritime country have to realize three main

maritime functions, these are:

− maritime safety;

− maritime security;

− maritime defence.

Maritime safety is the safety of life and property

at sea from the environmental and operational

threats, as well as the safety of maritime environ-

ment from pollution by the ships. On the national

level the maritime safety is being achieved as the re-

sult of the existing maritime safety legal framework;

operating the global and regional navigational infra-

structure, but mainly as the result of operation of the

highly specialized maritime operational services.

Each maritime country possess not less then 10 dif-

ferent kinds of maritime operational services. Most

important of them are the following:

− ships classification, survey, certification and in-

spection services;

− aids to navigation service;

− hydrography and navigational information ser-

vice;

− search and rescue (SAR) service;

− marine environment protection service;

− combating the environmental pollutions service;

− Vessel Traffic Services (VTSs);

− ensuring the security of the ships and port facili-

ties service, etc.

The maritime security is the security from the ter-

rorism, piracy and similar threats, as well as effec-

tive interdiction of all the illicit activities on sea such

as pollution of the marine environment; illegal ex-

ploitation of sea resources; illegal immigration;

smuggling the drugs, persons, weapons and other

matters that can be used for terrorist activities. The

maritime security is achieved mainly as the result of

the operation of the proper national maritime ser-

vices such as: Coast Guard, maritime police, Cus-

toms services, Immigration services and some other

[Dyrcz, 2005], [Jones, 2006], [Walczak, 2004].

It should be added that in this paper the term

“Coast Guard” means the national maritime security

service responsible for realization of the maritime

ABSTRACT: In this paper, an attempt has been made to present the subject and state of the three main func-

tions of each maritime country; these are: the maritime safety, maritime security and maritime defense func-

tions. There have been also discussed the subjects of these functions as well as the reasons and process of the

closest and closest cooperation between these functions, and even the merger of these functions in one mari-

time function, i.e. in the maritime safety, security and defense functions Especially quickly proceeds the mer-

ger of the maritime security and maritime defense functions in one maritime function, i.e. in maritime security

and defense function.

security function. However, these services only in

the United States and Canada are named as Coast

Guard [www.uscg.mil.]. In the Member States of the

EU, there exist different names of the national mari-

time security services, such as: Border Guard, Mari-

time Police, Maritime and Coast Guard Agency

(MCA) [www.mcga.gov.uk.] and many others. Also

the scope of tasks that realize these services differ

considerably in the each particular Member States of

the EU. The above is the result of the historical tra-

dition of the development of these services. The Eu-

ropean Union considers that the above situation is

not favorable for the closer cooperation of the secu-

rity services of the Member States of the EU. There-

fore, the European Union tries to unify these ser-

vices, i.e. to unify not only their names but also the

scopes of the competences of these services.

[ec.europe.eu/maritime_affairs.]

The maritime defense is the constituting part of

the national military defense. Maritime defense for

the Member States of the EU is the defense of na-

tional territorial integrity; defense of the sea lines of

communication and other national maritime assets;

contribute to the peace and security in the different

world’s areas; and assists the national security ser-

vices in the crisis and distress situations. Ensuring

the maritime defense is the main objective of naval

forces [NSA, 2002]. These forces include the differ-

ent kinds of combat ships and craft, aircraft, as well

as the Autonomous Air Vehicles (UAV) and Auton-

omous Underwater Vehicles (UUV), and others.

In the not distant past the above mentioned func-

tions, i.e. maritime safety, maritime security and

maritime defense functions were realized by the or-

ganizational structures (maritime operational ser-

vices: Coast Guard and Navy) that operated abso-

lutely separately. They, of course, assisted each

other but only in the very difficult situations.

However now, but more precisely, in some last

years, the above mentioned situation began to

change. These changes express themselves in the

new situation of the national maritime services. The

main national operational services, i.e. the Coast

Guard and Navy, have been constrained to cooperate

closer and closer, and even they have begun to real-

ize the tasks that constituted not their own functions.

The most characteristics function in this respect is

the maritime security functions that besides the

Coast Guard or similar services, has begun

to be realized also by the navy and other maritime

operational services.

The main reason, and at the same time the turning

point of the above changes was the outbreak of the

Global War on World Terrorism (SEP of 11

, 2001).

The above process of closer and closer coopera-

tion of the main national maritime services did not

cease to exist but it continues to develop and be-

comes more and more important.

Taking the above situation into consideration the

conclusion can be drawn that besides the global

threat of terrorism, there must exist also some other

important reasons that result in the stepwise integra-

tion of the maritime safety, maritime security and

maritime defence functions in a kind of the new su-

per function, i.e. in the integrated function of mari-

time safety, security and defence [Kopacz, 2004],

[Kopacz, 2005], [Kopacz, 2006].

Below, there are presented the following issues:

− reasons of the present changes in the main na-

tional maritime functions;

− present state of the maritime safety, security and

defence functions;

− expected changes in the maritime safety, security

and defence functions.

2 THE REASONS OF THE PRESENT CHANGES

IN THE MAIN NATIONAL MARITIME

FUNCTIONS

The main changes in the maritime safety, security

and defense functions express themselves mainly in

the following situation:

− maritime security tasks that in the past were real-

ized by the Coast Guard or similar security ser-

vices, there are being now, in higher and higher

degree, realized also by the two other services,

i.e. by the national operational services and by the

navy,

− the tasks of the maritime defence that in the past

were almost exclusively realized by the navy, are

now being realized, in higher and higher degree,

by the other maritime services, i.e. by the national

operational services and by the Coast Guard

(or similar security services), however mainly by

the last ones.

It should be also mentioned that the issues of

maritime safety begin to be the exclusive issues of

national operational services and begin to be also the

issues of two other main maritime services, i.e.

Coast Guard and Navy. It is the result of the perma-

nent growth of danger of pollution of marine envi-

ronment by the ships, and the necessity of preven-

tion such pollution, as well as combating the

consequences of pollutions if they occurred.

The main reason of the above mentioned changes

in the maritime safety, security and defense func-

tions is not only the outbreak of the maritime terror-

ism in the world’s dimension. This factor is of

course the decisive factor of the changes being now

underway. However, the outbreak of world’s terror-

ism has also in high degree intensified the influence

of many other factors of the present changes in the

main maritime functions. These factors have the

economic, political, military and social character,

and have come into existence long before the out-

break of Global War on World Terrorism. Below we

will try to enumerate the most important factors of

the present changes in maritime safety, security and

defense functions.

Collapse of the Soviet Military Block and coming

into being the multipolar world with its religious,

ethnic, national and other conflicts. The collapse of

this military block resulted also in very considerable

decreasing the probability of the military conflicts

between maritime countries. Decreasing the proba-

bility of outbreak of the military conflicts between

different countries results also from many other rea-

sons that they will be discussed below.

“Further polarization between the world of the

wealth” and the “world of the destitution”. This pro-

cess generates also the very unstable geographical

regions in the respect of maritime security. In these

regions exists very high level of terrorist attacks’

threat, piracy threats as well as threat of ships cap-

turing and their abduction. To the region of very

high security risk belongs now such region as Per-

sian Gulf, Arabian Sea, areas of Indian Ocean off the

Horn of Africa (Somali’s coast). The Gulf of Guinea

(Africa’s West Coast) [Peterson, 2007]. The high

risk of piracy attacks exists also on the approaches to

Malacca Strait and on the South China Sea.

Fast growing the new economic, political, mili-

tary and social world’s regions, such as the Europe-

an Union, China, India and Brazil, very fast change

the world situations that existed before. These new

world’s geographical regions result also in the de-

creasing the role of the United States not only in the

economic aspect but also in the political and military

aspects. The United States are loosing also stepwise

their role as the world’s military and sea power.

The further fast process of globalization express

itself also in the very fast growing the international

commerce, and in transportation by sea. The world

economy is tightly interconnected. Over the past

four decades, total sea borne trade has more than

quadrupled. 90% of the world trade and two-thirds

of its petroleum are transported by sea. The sea-

lanes and supporting shore infrastructure are the life-

lines of the modern global economy. They are visi-

ble but very vulnerable symbols of the modern dis-

tribution strategy [www.navy.mil/maritime/

Maritime_Strategy].

Process of climate change results also in the eco-

logical and social disasters. Hence, the necessity of

development crisis response capabilities to response

to these kinds of maritime calamities.

Very fast progress of science and technologies,

especially in such technologies as global positioning

and global communication technologies and many

other information technologies, is very favorable for

ensuring the maritime safety and security but it also

facilitates the terrorist activities. This progress facili-

tates also proliferation of nuclear weapon as well as

other kinds of weapons of mass destruction (WMD)

that can become also the weapons of terrorists.

3 PRESENT STATE OF THE MARITIME

SAFETY, SECURITY AND DEFENSE

FUNCTIONS

For the Member States of the European Union the

main criterion of the distribution of the areas of real-

ization of the maritime safety, security and defense

functions between the main maritime services, con-

stitutes the geographical location of the realization

areas towards the own coast:

− in the areas close to the own coast, the functions

of the maritime security and maritime defence

have been realized by the Coast Guard and other

security services, and Navy;

− in the areas located far from the own coast, the

functions of the maritime security and maritime

defence have been realized by the naval forces,

mainly in the form of the maritime security op-

erations (cf. CTF – 150) [en.wikipedia.org/

wiki/Maritime_Security_Operations],

[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_Task_Force_150

However, as it was already mentioned, the above

principle regards mainly the maritime countries of

EU and maritime countries being the members of

NATO. However, it can be also assumed that the

above principle regard also the United States and

their main maritime forces, i.e. Marine Corps, Navy

and Coast Guard [www.navy.mil/maritime/Maritime

_Strategy].

The maritime safety function in European Union

and in its Member States is being realized on the

three levels of maritime safety management

[Kopacz, 2001], [Kopacz, 2006]:

− the first and the highest level of management

constitutes the International Maritime Organiza-

tion. It creates the legal and operational basis for

maritime safety and security of the whole ship-

ping industry;

− the middle level of maritime safety management

constitutes the Vessel Traffic Monitoring and In-

formation System (VTMIS) of the European Un-

ion. Main objective of such System is to consid-

erably increase the maritime environment

protection from pollution by ships and enhance

the level of maritime security on the sea areas of

the European Union [Urbański, 2007];

− the lowest, i.e. the national level of maritime safe-

ty management constitutes the network of the

maritime operational services.

In Figure 1, there are shown the institution, legal

instruments, systems and services that realize the

maritime safety function.

Legal Instruments

of the Maritime Safety and Security

Management (International Maritime

Conventions, etc.)

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

and co-operative and consultative organizations

- International Maritime Systems and Services,

- Regional Maritime Systems and Services,

- Maritime Operational Services.

Ships and Craft Operated at Sea

Maritime Environment of the Shipping industry

(geographic, legal and operational)

Figure 1. Institutions, legal instruments, systems and services

of the maritime safety function.

The maritime security function is not the new

main maritime function. However, the importance of

this function, i.e. the amount of its tasks and the sig-

nificance of these tasks of this function have grown

incomparable after the 11

of SEP, 2001. This func-

tion, as was already mentioned, is being realized

now by all the three main maritime services, i.e. by

the maritime operational services, Coast Guard and

Navies. There exist two main kinds of geographical

areas in which this function is being realized. First

kinds of areas constitute the maritime areas of each

Member State of the EU. The second kinds of areas

are the far-away areas where exist very high risk for

maritime security. In the first kind of maritime areas

the maritime security function is being realized by

the Coast Guards and Navies of the Member States

of the EU. In the second kind of areas the maritime

security function is being realized mainly by the na-

vies of maritime states operating in these areas,

mainly in the form of Maritime Security Operations

conducted by the maritime NATO forces or the EU

forces.

It should be added that in the relation to the ship-

ping industry the maritime security function consti-

tutes together with maritime safety function one

compound function, i.e. the maritime safety and se-

curity function of the shipping industry. In Figure 2,

there are shown the main means and ways of the re-

alization of the compound maritime safety and secu-

rity function of shipping industry on the maritime

areas of the European Union.

MARITIME SECURITY

OPERATION

Tasks:

- Ensure the proper level of maritime security of the Southern flank of the European

Union

EUROPEAN UNION

1. INTERNATIONAL AND

NATIONAL MARITIME

SAFETY AND SECURITY

SYSTEMS

Tasks:

Ensuring the maritime safety and security of

the shipping industry

2. VTMIS/ENMS

Tasks:

- enhance the protection of marine

environment of EU from pollution

- ensure the proper level of

maritime security, understood in

the widest meaning of this notion

AFRICA

Figure 2. The main means and ways of realization of the com-

pound maritime safety and security function on the maritime

areas of the European Union.

The United States “National Strategy for Home-

land Security” (July 2002) [www.whitehouse.gov

/homeland/book] in the following way defines the

Critical Mission Areas of this function:

− intelligence and warning;

− border and transportation security;

− domestic counterterrorism;

− protecting critical infrastructure and key assets;

− defending against catastrophic threats;

− emergency preparedness and response.

The above critical mission areas of the maritime

security function have the general character and

therefore they fully regard all Member States of the

European Union.

The United States “National Strategy for Mari-

time Security” (September 2005)

[www.dhs.gov/xlibrary

/assets/HSDD13_Maritime_Security_Strategy] de-

fines the following threats for this security:

− national-state threats;

− terrorist threats;

− transnational criminal and piracy threats;

− environmental destruction;

− illegal seaborne immigration.

The United States “A Cooperative Strategy for

Century Seapower” (October 2007) is the com-

mon strategy of all the three maritime military ser-

vices, i.e. Maritime Corps, Navy and Coast Guard

[www.navy.mil/maritime/Maritime_Strategy]. This

strategy defines 6 core capabilities. Two of these ca-

pabilities, i.e. 5

and 6

can be considered as the

core capabilities that concern the maritime security,

they are:

− maritime security;

− humanitarian assistance and disaster response.

The maritime security capability is defined as the

creation and maintenance of security at sea is essen-

tial to mitigate the threats short of war, including pi-

racy, terrorism, weapons proliferation, drug traffick-

ing, and other illicit activities. Counteracting these

irregular and transnational threats protects the home-

land security, enhances global stability and secures

freedom of navigation for the benefits of all nations.

The maritime defence function, as was stated

above, is being now closer and closer integrated with

the maritime security function, but these two func-

tions penetrate also each other and begin to create

one function, i.e. maritime security and defence

function.

The subject of the maritime defence function, in

relation to the maritime Member States of the Euro-

pean Union and the NATO had been already pre-

sented and discussed above. Therefore, we want and

will try to discuss shortly the subject of, also already

mentioned, the new maritime strategy, i.e. “A Coop-

erative Strategy for the 21st Century Seapower”

[www.navy.mil/maritime/Maritime_Strategy]. It is

the strategy of all three maritime military services of

the United States.

From the substance and content of this strategy

can be concluded that this Strategy is not only the

maritime strategy of the United States’ Seapower but

also the strategy of all the political and military part-

ners of the USA. This Strategy defines, as was men-

tioned, 6 core capabilities that comprise the essence

of the US maritime power and reflects an increase

in emphasis on these activities that prevent war and

build partnerships. There are defined 6 following

capabilities of the US Seapower:

− forward presence;

− deterrence;

− sea control;

− power projection;

− maritime security;

− humanitarian assistance and disaster response.

The last two core capabilities have been already

discussed. Therefore below, we will try to discuss

the first 4 core capabilities of the US Seapower.

The above first 4 core capabilities are in the reali-

ty 4 maritime military strategies, i.e. the navy opera-

tional concepts. Two of these strategies existed al-

ready in the past (2

and 3

). However, two other

strategies (1

and 4

) are considerable new. The

strategies are forward presence (1

) and power pro-

jection (4

) have been formulated and applied by the

US Navy and Marine Corps in the last 16 years. Ini-

tially these strategies were called as: ”... From the

Sea” (1992) and “Forward ... from the Sea” (1994).

The “Deterrence” strategy (2

core capability)

was formulated and applied during the cold war. It

was especially relevant with regard to the use of nu-

clear weapons. Now, the concept of “Deterrence”

strategy express the truth but mainly the US military

policy that “preventing the war is preferable to

fighting wars”. The “Sea Control” strategy (the 3

core capability) that very often is also called “Com-

mand of the Sea” strategy is one of the oldest mari-

time strategies. It was formulated and applied al-

ready during the age of the sail.

The presented all the 4 core capabilities of the

Marine Corps, Navy and Coast Guard, together with

2 other core capabilities discussed before (“maritime

security” and “humanitarian assistance and disaster

response”) constitute the essence of the US

“A Cooperative Strategy for 21

Century Seapow-

er”.

4 EXPECTED CHANGES IN THE MARITIME

SAFETY, SECURITY AND DEFENSE

FUNCTIONS

In the above two sections of this paper there have

been presented the realization of the maritime safety,

security and defense functions in national, regional

and international dimension. Also the threats being

the subjects of the activities constituting these func-

tions have had mainly the economic, political, mili-

tary and social character. However, it is evident that

in 21

century, besides of the above threats, there are

more and more frequently expected other kinds of

threats, i.e. natural and other threats that have the

global character. Such threats are called the “global

calamities”. The natural calamities constitute also

the component part of the global calamities. There

have been commonly agreed that the following ca-

lamities are considered as the global calamities

[www.unitedcats.worldpress.com/2007/10/11/ten_gl

obal _calamities]:

− terrorism;

− climate changes;

− emergent diseases (some contentious forms of in-

curable virus diseases);

− wars;

− volcanic eruptions;

− asteroid/planet – death from the above;

− methane release (from the continental shelves);

− doomsday devices (nuclear, chemical, biological,

etc.);

− strange matter experiments (that can result in

global catastrophe);

− aliens (creatures from the outer space).

As the natural calamities are considered the fol-

lowing [http://wiki.answears.com/Q/what_are_the

_natural_calamities]:

− earth quakes;

− floods;

− famine;

− volcanic eruptions;

− landslides;

− fires;

− hurricanes;

− tornados;

− ice storms, etc.

The natural calamities are not the new events.

They were known since ever. However, the frequen-

cy and intensity of these calamities are becoming

now higher and higher. That is the result of the cli-

mate change. To the global calamities that are man-

ageable, i.e. that might be prevented or whose results

might be mitigated, belong the first four global ca-

lamities; these are:

− terrorism;

− climate change;

− emergent diseases;

− wars.

Among the global calamities the most dangerous

for our planet – Earth and for humans’ existence on

it, is the climate change. The climate changes, but

especially the permanent increase of the tempera-

ture, i.e. the global warming, result in the following:

− melting glaciers and land ice (and therefore, in

thermal expansion of the water);

− sea level rise;

− changes in the rainfall and evaporation;

− increasing the intensity of natural processes, es-

pecially geomorphological processes in the

coastal zone, and others.

Preventing the climate change and other global

and natural calamities but also economic and social

calamities (and mitigating their harmful influence,

are tried to be achieved, in global dimension, in the

following ways [Sachs, 2005], [Sachs, 2008],

[www.un.org/genonto/bp/enviro.html]:

− reduction of the emission of the Greenhouse Gas-

es (GHG), mainly CO2;

− combating the extreme poverty and civilization

backwardness;

− protection of the environment (land and mari-

time) from pollution;

− protecting the biodiversity (land and maritime);

− ensuring the sustainable economic, development,

and others.

Taking the above facts into consideration we can

draw the following conclusions regarding the ex-

pected changes in maritime safety, security and de-

fence functions:

− there exists almost the certainty to assume that

such global calamities as terrorism and climate

change’s effects will be growing permanently and

will constitute the main dangers and threats that

must be prevented, avoided and mitigated by the

maritime safety, security and defence functions;

− the maritime security activities and measures will

in higher and higher degree constitute the essence

not only maritime security function but also mari-

time safety and maritime defence functions;

− the permanently growing dangers and threats, be-

ing the effects of the expected natural and global

calamities will and must result in the situation

that the crisis/calamities response readiness and

its efficiency will constitute the main component

not only of the maritime security function but al-

so the maritime safety and maritime defense func-

tions.

5 CONCLUSIONS

This paper has been presented the main issues of the

functions of maritime safety, security and defense of

today and tomorrow. The authors tried to show the

main issues constituting the subject and contents of

these functions not only today but also in the nearest

future. They tried also to show the state of realiza-

tion of these functions both in the European Union

and in the USA. There has been also undertaken the

efforts to present the most probably changes’ rea-

sons that could influence the realization of these

functions and could modify the substance and main

tasks of the discussed functions.

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