171
1
INTRODUCTION
The increased concentration of greenhouse gases
(GHGs) and their impact on the Earthʹs climate are
pressing issues faced by the current generation.
Urgent actiontoreduceGHGconcentrationsis long
overdue.Thetransportationsectorhasbeenidentified
as a major contributor to the increased GHG
concentration.Theshippingindustry,
whichaccounts
for80%ofglobaltradebyvolumeand over70%by
value, is particularly significant. According to
estimates,internationalshippingcontributedto1.8%
ofglobalCO₂emissionsin1996,andthisincreasedto
2.7%in2009.Althoughthisemissionratedecreasedto
2.2% in 2012 due to the
global economic crisis, it is
projected that CO₂ emissions from shipping will
Effectiveness of Current Technology in GHG Reduction
– A literature Survey
T.M.Klakeel,M.Anantharaman,R.Islam&V.Garaniya
UniversityofTasmania,Launceston,Australia
ABSTRACT:In2018 during the 72nd sessionof theMaritime Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC)
IMOadopteditsinitialstrategyforthereductionofgreenhousegasemissions(GHG)fromtheshipstomeetthe
ParisAgreementGoals,2015.Thisisconsideredasamajormilestoneinformulizing
aclearstrategybyIMO
towards its objective of reducing the global GHG emissions from the ships. The strategy had two primary
objectives: thefirstwas todecrease total annual GHG emissions by at least50%by 2050 compared to 2008
levels. The second objective was to promote the phasing
out of GHG emissions entirely. In 2020, the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) conducted a study which revealed that greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissionsfromshippinghadincreasedby9.6%.Theriseinglobalmaritimetradewasidentifiedasthemain
factorbehindthisincrease.IMOʹs2020studyalsoconcludedthatreducing
GHGemissionsbyfocusingonlyon
energy‐saving technologies and ship speed reduction would not be enough to meet the IMOʹs 2050 GHG
reductiontarget.Therefore,greaterattentionneedstobegiventotheuseoflow‐carbonalternativefuels.To
understand the effectiveness of currently available technologies in
reducing GHG emissions from ships, a
literature survey was conducted in this study. The survey examined a range of related articles published
between2018and2022.Thisstudyaimedtoidentifythecurrentstageandthequantityofliteratureavailableon
varioustechnologiesand,moreimportantly,serveasadecision‐making
supporttoolforselectingatechnology
underspecificcircumstancesinaquantitativemanner.Thetechnologiesweredividedintofourgroups:those
thatutilizefossilfuels,thosethatuserenewableenergy,thosethatusefuelcells,andthosethatuselow‐carbon
oralternativefuels.Theliteraturesurveywasconductedusing
WebofScience(WoS)andGoogleScholar.The
results of thisstudy will alsohelp toidentify clear research gaps in comparing the effectiveness of various
availabletechnologiestoreduceGHGemissions.Ultimately,theaimistodevelopacomprehensivestrategy
thatcan beused toreduceGHGemissions from shipping
andcontributetotheglobal fightagainstclimate
change.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 17
Number 1
March 2023
DOI:10.12716/1001.17.01.18
172
increase by 50% to 250% in the period up to 2050,
owing to the projected growth in demand for
maritime transport services(IMO,2018). The lack of
strict action by the IMO can lead to a catastrophic
failureofthecurrentglobaltargettolimittheglobal
averagetemperaturerise
totwodegreesby2050.
During the 72nd session of the Maritime
EnvironmentalProtectionCommittee(MEPC)in2018,
theIMOadopteditsinitialstrategyforreducingGHG
emissions from ships to meet the goals of the 2015
Paris Agreement. This adoption is considered a
significant milestone in the IMOʹs
efforts to reduce
globalGHGemissionsfromships.Themainobjective
of this strategy is to reduce the total annual GHG
emissionsby atleast50%by 2050 comparedto2008
while also pursuing efforts to completely phase out
GHGs (IMO, 2018). The 72nd session of the MEPC
washeldat
theIMOHeadquartersinLondon,United
Kingdom, and was attended by more than 100 IMO
memberstates.
This strategy establishes a future vision, various
levels of ambition in reducing GHG emissions, and
guiding principles that include short‐termand long‐
termmeasureswithpossibletimelinesandimpactson
different member
states. Additionally, the strategy
listspotentialdifficultiesin achievingthe milestones
and sets up various supportive measures, including
capacitybuilding,technicalcooperation,andresearch
anddevelopment.TheIMOplanstorevisethisinitial
strategyby2023.
Currently, various organizations, nations, and
engine manufacturers are considering and
implementing different methods and conducting
research to effectively reduce GHG emissions while
minimizingthecostimpactontheindustry.Although
some of thesemethods and research have produced
promising initial results, the full side effects and
effectiveness in achieving the stringent IMO targets
stillneedtobecompletelyunderstood.
This study aims to conduct a
literature surveyof
availablearticlespublishedbetween2018and2022in
GoogleScholarandWoStoidentifytheeffectiveness
of various technologies currently available in
reducingGHGemissions.
2
METHODOLOGY
2.1
Searchcriteria
For understanding the currently available
technologies that target the reduction of GHG
emission,asystematicreviewofpublishedacademic
literaturehasbeenundertaken.Utilisingwidelyused
methodology (demonstrated in Wan et al‐2017 and
Romana;YanzZ‐2021),theGoogleScholarandWeb
ofScience(WoS)databasewasused
forgatheringthe
academic literature. The search for this paper was
conductedinJanuary2023.
ForGoogleScholar–Articleswiththewords“Ship
andemission”,“ShipandGHGemission”,“Shipand
fuel cell”, “Ship and renewable energy” and “Ship
and low carbon fuel” contained in the title were
considered
forthereviewaspartofthispaper.
ForWoS–WithinWoS,forfunction“Topic”word
Ship* was used for “Titles” emission*, GHG*, fuel
cell*, renewable energy*,and low carbon fuel* were
used.
2.2
Selectionofarticles
Google Scholar –An initial search using the search
criteriaoutlinedinsection2.1ofthispaperresultedin
a total of 254 articles in Google Scholar. After
excluding citations and applying the search criteria
for the year of publication (2018‐2022), the total
number of articles was reduced
to 117. Upon
reviewingtheabstractsofvariousarticles,atotalof22
articleswereshortlistedforfurtherreviewaspartof
thispaper.
WebofScience(WoS)‐Aninitialsearchusingthe
search criteria outlined in section 2.1 of this paper
resulted in a total of 2,153 publications. After
excluding publications that are not articles (such as
proceedings,earlyaccess,editorialmaterial,etc.)and
applyingthesearchcriteriafortheyearofpublication
(2018‐2022), the total number was reduced to 997.
Afteraquickreviewoftheabstracts,46articleswere
shortlistedforfurtherreviewaspartofthis
paper.
3
RESULTS
3.1
Technologiesthatutilizefossilfuels
A total of 16 articles were reviewed in this section.
The shipping industry contributes significantly to
global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with fuel
costs accounting for approximately 50‐60% of the
operating cost for a merchant vessel. To reduce
emissions from the use of fossil fuels,
two main
categories of methods are considered: technical and
operational.Technicalmethodsincludemodifications
tothehull,engine,propeller,capacity,anddesignof
ships, while operational methods include speed
optimization, loading‐unloading management, trim
optimization,andweatherrouting.Anotheroptionis
theuseofalternativefuelscomparedtothecommonly
usedheavyfueloil(HFO).
Technicalmethodsmainlyfocusonimprovingthe
Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI). It is worth
notingthatfurtherimprovementtotheEEDIisoneof
theIMOʹskeystrategiesinreducingGHGemissions.
The EEDI is intended as a non‐prescriptive,
performance‐based mechanism where
ship designers
andbuilderscanselectthemostcost‐efficientsolution
in complying with IMO regulations (Harlos, 2019).
ThebasicsimplifiedformulaforcalculatingtheEEDI
isasfollows:
EEDI = CO₂ emission/Transportwork (Class NK‐
2016)
CO₂emissionsarecalculatedbasedonthecarbon
contentoffuelconsumption,which
isdeterminedby
thepowerusedforauxiliaryandpropulsionpowerat
a defined design condition. Transport work is
estimated by multiplying the shipʹs capacity, as
defined by IMO guidelines, by the shipʹs reference
speedatthecorrespondingdraft.Thereferencespeed
isgenerallydeterminedat75%of the
ratedinstalled
173
propulsion power and at 83% of the rated installed
propulsion power for LNG carriers with a diesel‐
electric or steam turbine propulsion system (ICCT,
2020).
ThecurrentEEDIcalculationandregulationfocus
on CO₂ emissions. As the EEDI currently only
regulates CO₂, ship owners are increasingly inclined
topurchase
LNG‐fuelledshipsasitismucheasierto
meetthecurrentregulationsusingLNG asfuel.The
main reasons for using LNG are: i) LNG emits
approximately 25% less CO₂ than conventional
marinefuelprovidingthesameamountofpropulsion
power(ICCT,2020),ii)thereislesssulphurcontent
in
LNG,iii)lownitrogenoxideemissionswiththehelp
oflessexpensivetechnologytreatingtheexhaustgas,
iv) with less sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide
emissions, these vessels are easy to operate in
emission‐controlled areas(ECA), and v) LNG is less
expensive than MGO (Marine Gas Oil) and in
some
placesevencheaperthanHFO.
Operational Method‐The majority of papers
assessedinthissectionfocusonthemethodofʺslow
steaming,ʺwhichinvolvesreducingthespeedofships
toreducefuelconsumptionandGHGemissions.One
study (Ayudhia, 2019) noted that a 20‐knot ship
consumes 130% more
fuel than a 15‐knot ship with
thesameload,indicatingthatashipʹsspeedaffectsits
fuelconsumptionandemissions.Loweringthespeed
of ships can result in a 40% reduction in fuel
consumption, but the benefits may not always be
realized if the shipping time exceeds the specified
time window. For this study, emissions were
calculated using a method developed by the Puget
Sound Maritime Air Emission Inventory (PSMAEI)
publishedin2016.
Belowisthesummaryofthisstudy.
Table1.VesselDetails(Ayudhia,2019–Table1)
Table 2. Total Emission with each speed scenario (Ayudhia,
2019 - Table 7)
Alternative fossil fuels‐The next majority of
studiesrelatedto theuseoffossil fuelscomparethe
economicfeasibilityandCO₂emissionreductionfrom
LNG‐fuelled ships. It can be summarized that,
although LNG reduces GHG emissions, its use is
economically feasible only under certain conditions
such as round‐trip,
ship size, oil bunker price, and
LNG bunker price discount. The optimal ship size
depends on bunker prices and CO₂ emission
reduction. These studies provide valuable insights
into the trade‐offs between the economic feasibility
and environmental sustainability of LNG‐fueled
shipping.
One study (Peng Cheng, 2021) aimed to reduce
greenhouse
gas emissions in the marine
transportation sector by using hybrid electric
propulsion systems (HEPS) with natural gas (NG)
engines.TheresultsshowedthattheuseofLNGfuel
andtheoptimizationofthehybridelectricpropulsion
system reduced fuel consumption and GHG
emissions.TheswitchfromdieseltoNG‐diesel
dual‐
fuel engines reduced fuel costs by 74%, but GHG
emissions decreased by only 7.24%. The optimal
hybrid electric powertrain with NG fuel reduced
GHGemissionsby 38.67%. Thesimultaneous design
andcontroloptimizationoftheNGenginewascrucial
inreducingemissions,astheengineoperatingwithin
alow‐emission
zoneledtoreducedGHGemission.
3.2
Technologiesthatutiliserenewableenergy
Only six papers/articles were identified that were
published on technologies that utilize renewable
energyforthepropulsionofvessels.Whilerenewable
energy sources (RESs) arefree from GHG emissions
and play a vital role in sustainable development by
reducing GHG emissions from ocean‐going marine
ships,
their advantages are overridden by the large
amount of reliable energy needed to support the
propulsive load demand, resulting in space
constraints.RESsareintermittent,andalargeamount
ofenergycannotbestoredeconomicallybyavailable
energy storage techniques. Additionally, the
penetrationofRESsinamarineshipis
limitedbythe
available area and total weight carrying capacity of
themarineship(Gabbar,2021).
Due to the limitations of dependability on
renewable energy sources alone, all the papers
reviewedpresentedastudyontheoptimizationofthe
hybrid power system. The aim is to reduce marine
environmental pollution and
greenhouse gas
emissions by using renewable energy technologies
alongwithconventionalenergysources.Someofthe
systems addressed were wind‐diesel‐storage hybrid
power systems, solar‐diesel‐storage hybrid power
systems, and nuclear‐renewable hybrid power
systems. A typical arrangement of such a system is
showninfigure1below
(Gabbar,2021).
The results from these studies show that the
hybridsystemslikeonementionedabovearehelpful
in reducing GHG emissions. However, the main
challengesthatneedtobeovercomearestorageissues
withrenewableenergysources,weight,maintenance
costs,andlessoverallvalueformoney.
Another system considered in
one of the articles
(Yunlong‐2022) is wind‐assisted ship propulsion
(WASP).TheInternationalMaritimeOrganizationhas
established measures to reduce emissions, and re‐
searchershavebeenexploringWASPtechnologyasa
meanstoachievethisgoal.WASPtechnologies,such
asrotorsailsandtowingkites,havebeendeveloped
and
tested,andhaveshownpromiseinreducingfuel
consumption and emissions. However, the
174
widespreadadoptionofWASPtechnologyislimited
by factors such as cost, maintenance, deck space
requirements,andsafetyconcerns.Theauthorsofthis
paper suggest that further research should be
conductedtoassessthetechno‐economicfeasibilityof
WASP technologies and address safety concerns to
promotetheiradoptioninthe
shippingindustry.
Figure1. Typical Hybrid Arrangement (Gabbar, 2021 –
Figure5)
3.3 Technologythatutilisefuelcells
In a fuel cell, hydrogen combines with oxygen to
release electrons and generate electric power. This
electrochemical reaction can be represented by the
belowequation.
2
22
22
222
:2
1
:2
2
1
:
2
Anode H O H O e
Cathode O e O
Overall H O H O
Fuel cells do not use all of the supplied fuel,
leaving residual fuel that needs to be collected and
burned for safety reasons. This results in a large
amount of heat energy being produced, including
fromthe electrochemicalreaction andcombustion of
residual fuel. Onshore power plants can utilize this
thermalenergytoprovidenotonlyelectricitybutalso
heatingtosurroundingareasthroughcombinedheat
andpower(CHP)systems.However,shipsatseado
not require as much heating, so alternative uses for
this thermal energy must be considered in fuel‐cell
ships.
Atotalof22articleswerereviewed
inthissection.
One study (Ref D.‐S. C. Donghyun Oh, Dae‐Seung
Cho‐2022) proposesahybridpropulsion system for
ships, combining electric and thermal energy from
fuel cells to generate mechanical driving force as
shown in below figure 4. The system consists of an
electricmotoranda
steamturbine,andtherotational
powersfrombotharecombinedatthepropellershaft.
The study analyses the efficiency of the system
throughnumericalsimulationsandfindsittobe49%.
The results show that the proposed system can
decreasefuelconsumptionandreducethesizeofthe
fuel cell compared
to conventional systems, but
furtheroptimizationisneededtoincreaseefficiency.
Figure2.HybridSystem(Donghyun,2022Figure3)
Mostofthearticlesreviewedinthispaperdiscuss
the use of hydrogen fuel cells in ships and the
potential risks associated with hydrogen leakage.
While fuel cells have been promoted as a zero‐
emission alternative energy source for ships, safety
concerns have also been raised. Three papers
primarily focus on
the impact of hydrogen leakage
fromfuelcells,valves,andconnectorsonafuelcell‐
powered ship and evaluate the effectiveness of
existingventilationsystems.
One article (Lijian Chen – 2021) uses a fuel cell‐
powered and tried to calculates the release rate of
hydrogen leakage from a typical vessel.
It also
considers the safety principles of the fuel cell space,
such asʺsingle failure safetyʺ andʺexplosion
prevention.ʺTheresultsshowthatoptimizingthefuel
cellspacedesign,ventilation,andmoduledesigncan
significantly reduce the scope of the explosive gas
environment created by hydrogen leakage and
improve the safety
of the ship. However, further
research is needed to extend these measures to
passengershipsandaddresstheuncertaintiesinrisk
assessment.
Another study (Xiaobing‐2021) investigates the
safetyofhydrogenfuelcellsystems(HFCS)inships
bysimulatingthediffusionandexplosionbehaviour
of hydrogen in different compartments after
a
leakage. The simulations were conducted using the
ANSYS Fluent software and the Realize k‐ε
turbulence model, taking into account the boundary
conditions and possible ignition sources. The results
showed that the position of the explosion centre
affects the overpressure damage, and hydrogen
concentration affects the high‐temperature damage.
The fuel
cell compartment had the most severe
overpressure damage, followed by the control
compartment,whilethepassengercompartmenthad
theleastoverpressuredamagebutposedthegreatest
dangertothecrewincaseofanexplosion.
Another article (M. Cavo – 2021) discusses a
research project aimed at developing and testing
a
zero‐emission ship powered by PEMFC (Proton
ExchangeMembraneFuelCells)andLi‐ionbatteries.
The ship is designed to store hydrogen using metal
hydridesand willuse aPIcontrollerto regulate the
thermal coupling between the fuel cells and metal
hydrides. The system components involved in
thermal control
include heat exchangers, blenders,
control valves, and variable‐speed pumps. The
mathematical modelling of these components is
described using equations. The simulations are
conducted using real operating conditions and a 7‐
hour journey duration. The fuel cell energy system
sustains the electrical demand, with the metal
hydrides absorbing residual heat.
The hydrogen
175
consumptioninthesystemincreaseswiththeloadon
thecells,decreasingtheinternalpressureofthemetal
hydrides, which results in a higher hydrogen flow.
Thewatertemperatureatthe metalhydrides inletis
controlled by adjusting the flow rate of the heat
exchangersystem.
3.4
Technologiesthatuselow‐carbonoralternativefuels
A total of 24 articles were reviewed in this section.
Mostofthepapersaimedtoexplorethepotentialuse
of ammonia as an energy storage solution for
renewable energy. They proposed ammonia as a
solutionduetoitshighenergydensityand
feasibility
ofproduction.Otheradvantagesofammoniaarethat
it does not contain carbon and when burnt
completely, it only produces water and nitrogen
withoutotherpollutinggases.
The use of hydrogen as a promoter forammonia
engines has been extensively studied due to
ammoniaʹs low specific energy, high
auto‐ignition
temperatures, and narrow flammability limits.
Hydrogen has the lowest ignition energy, highest
combustionvelocity, andwidest flammability range,
makingiteffectiveinspeedingupcombustionwhen
addedinsmallamountstotheair‐ammoniamixture.
Ammonia‐hydrogen mixtures can be used in both
compression ignition (CI) and spark ignition
(SI)
internal combustion engines, with the CI having a
trade‐off between a high compression ratio to
promote ammonia combustion and a limited
compressionratiotopreventhydrogenfromringing.
ResearchbyK.Kim,G.Roh,W.Kim,andK.Chun
(2020) has investigated the use of ammonia in SI
engines,resultinginareductioninharmfulemissions
comparedtoCIengines.Studiesvariedtheexcessair
ratio and the ammonia‐to‐hydrogen ratio to
determinetheproperair‐ammonia‐hydrogenmixture
composition for actual operating conditions. An
onboardreformercouldbeusedtocrackaproportion
oftheammoniainto
hydrogentosupportcombustion,
butfurtherresearchisrequiredtocalibratetherateof
hydrogen cracking to support stable combustion
conditionsatvariableengineloadsandspeeds.
A case study by Francesco Baldi (2019)
investigatedtheuseofexcessrenewableenergyfrom
a200MW offshore wind farmtopropel
a car ferry.
Theenergywasstoredandtransportedinthreeforms:
batteries, hydrogen, and ammonia. The electric way
stored excess energy in batteries, the hydrogen way
used excess energy in the electrolysis to generate
hydrogen,whichwasstoredineithercompressedor
liquid form, and the ammonia way used excess
energy to generate hydrogen from water in an
electrolyser and nitrogen from air in a cryogenic air
separation unit. Hydrogen and nitrogen were then
used inanammonia synthesis plant (assumed tobe
basedontheHaber‐Boschtechnology)thatconverted
themtoammonia,whichwasstoredinliquidformat
at low temperature. The study found that using
batteriesalonewastheleastconvenientoptiondueto
high investment costs, while liquid hydrogen was
morecompetitivecomparedtocompressedhydrogen.
A total of nine articles discusses the use of low‐
carbonfuelsasanalternativetofossilfuelstoreduce
CO
₂emissionsinthemaritimeindustry.Technologies
suchasliquefiedpetroleumgas(LPG),methanol,and
biodiesel are being studied as potential alternative
fuels. These fuels have advantages such as lower
emissions of CO₂ and sulphur dioxide, easy
availability, and convenient storage and
transportation. However, they also have drawbacks
such as a
limited ability to reduce CO₂ emissions,
strong corrosiveness, and limited improvement in
thermal efficiency. Research is ongoing to find the
best solution to reduce emissions in the maritime
industry,withafocusonimprovingtheperformance
ofthesealternativefuels.
4
CONCLUSIONS
Thisstudyconductedasystematicreviewofacademic
literature to understand the currently available
technologies that target the reduction of GHG
emissions in the shipping industry. The researchers
usedGoogleScholarandWebofSciencedatabasesto
gatheracademicliteratureandshortlistedatotalof22
articlesfromGoogleScholar
and46articlesfromWoS
forfurtherreview.Amongthe68articlesreviewedas
part of this literature review, the least number of
articleswereidentifiedinthetechnologythatutilizes
renewable energy, followed by technologies that
utilizefossilfuels,thentechnologythatusesfuelcells,
andthehighestnumber
ofarticleswereidentifiedon
technologies that utilize low carbon or alternative
fuels.
Technologiesthatuserenewableenergy‐Theuse
of renewable energy sources for the propulsion of
marine vessels has been limited due to challenges
such as intermittency, energy storage limitations,
weight, and maintenance costs. However, research
has been conducted
on the optimization of hybrid
power systems that combine renewable energy
sources with conventional energy sources to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, wind‐
assisted ship propulsion (WASP) technologies have
beendevelopedandtestedasameanstoreducefuel
consumption and emissions. Still, their widespread
adoption is limited by factors
such as cost,
maintenance, deck space requirements, and safety
concerns.Furtherresearchisneededtoaddressthese
challenges and promote the adoption of renewable
energytechnologiesintheshippingindustry.
Technology that uses fossil fuels – Articles
identified in this section discuss technical and
operationalmethods,aswellastheuse
ofalternative
fuels such as LNG. The Energy Efficiency Design
Index(EEDI)hasbeenidentifiedasakeystrategyfor
reducing emissions, and the use of LNG has been
found to be a promising alternative to traditional
marinefuelsduetoitsloweremissionsandcost.Slow
steaming has also
been suggested as an effective
methodforreducingfuelconsumptionandemissions,
although the benefits may not always be realized if
theshippingtimeexceedsthespecifiedtimewindow.
Overall, the studies reviewed provide valuable
insights into the trade‐offs between economic
feasibility and environmental sustainability in the
shipping industry and
offer useful strategies for
reducing emissions and mitigating the industryʹs
impactontheenvironment.
176
Technologiesthatusefuelcells–Althoughtheuse
of hydrogen fuel cells addresses most of the issues
surrounding GHG emissions, there are serious
concernsregardingthesafetyofhydrogenfuelcellsin
ships, particularly related to hydrogen leakage and
explosionrisks.Severalstudieshaveinvestigatedthe
impactofhydrogen
leakageonthesafetyoffuelcell‐
poweredshipsandfoundthatoptimizationofthefuel
cellspacedesign,ventilation,andmoduledesigncan
significantly reduce the scope of the explosive gas
environment created by hydrogen leakage and
improvethesafetyoftheship.Overall,thesestudies
suggestthatthe
useofhybridpropulsionsystemsand
hydrogenfuelcellsinshipscanprovideapromising
zero‐emissionalternativeenergysource.Still,further
research is needed to address safety concerns and
optimizesystemefficiency.
Technologies that use alternative or low‐carbon
fuel: Most of the articles reviewed as part of this
literature
review were published in the field of
technologies that use alternative or low‐carbon fuel.
Among these fuels, ammonia is considered the
preferred option due to the lack of carbon, higher
energy density, and feasibility in production, but
further research is needed to optimize its use and
ensure safety. The
use of low‐carbon fuels such as
LPG,methanol,andbiodieselisalsobeingexploredin
variousstudies,butthesefuelshavebothadvantages
anddrawbacksthatneedtobecarefullyconsidered.
5
FUTUREWORK
From the initial search result of 2209 articles (from
both googlescholarandWoS), only 68 articles were
reviewedinthisstudyduetoscheduleconstraints.It
isassumedthatmorearticlescouldalsobeincluded
inthisliteraturereviewafterfurtherassessmentofthe
content of these articles.
This has the potential of
identifyingnewtechnologiesthatarenotlistedinthis
study.
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