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1 INTRODUCTION

Maritime transport without exaggeration remains the

main mode of transport for the vast majority of cargo

types, as the cost of its transportation competitive and

acceptable to all market participants. With the

intensive development of the maritime transport

sector, the pressure on the environmental component

of the industry increases proportionally. As a result,

the unstable level of fuel costs, the increased necessity

for environmental management along with a tendency

to lower fuel consumption are the main factors that

make it necessary to introduce energy-efficient

measures on ships. This is due to several reasons,

which include ineffective ship design, poor planning,

and lack of optimal use of resources. Thus, the concept

and necessity of for their application in the shipping

industry have been transferred into the realities of the

daily operation of the maritime transport. The

emissions from the international shipping of more than

a hundred thousand ships constitute almost 3% of total

greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change

resulting in global warming; therefore, the shipping

industry has an important place in the problem of

climate change.

International Maritime Organization (IMO),

MEPC.203(62) adopted resolution, introduced into The

International Convention for Prevention of Marine

Pollution for Ships (MARPOL) Annex VI, in particular,

a new Chapter 4, which establishing a number of

requirements for ships energy efficiency and targeting

a step-by-step reduction of carbon dioxide emissions

from seagoing ships. It is notable that in general, the

Study of Environmental Efficiency of Ship Operation in

Terms of Freight Transportation Effectiveness

Provision

O. Melnyk

, O. Onishchenko

, S. Onyshchenko

, V. Golikov

, V. Sapiha

, O. Shcherbina

& V. Andrievska

Odesa National Maritime University, Odesa, Ukraine

National University “Odesa Maritime Academy”, Odesa, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Development and implementation of various projects focused on improving standards of energy

efficiency and rational use of energy carriers is a priority for numerous enterprises and companies. Modern

shipping devotes sufficient attention to improving the environmental performance of the fleet. As part of the

strategy to improve environmental safety and energy efficiency, as well as to reduce air and marine pollution in

industries, including maritime transport and shipping, a set of steps to improve the ship's energy efficiency is

being implemented. This process is carried out in various ways, however, at the same time maintaining the

economic indicators of fleet operation. Relevant is the research aimed at analyzing the introduction of energy

management systems in the maritime transport and summarizing the experience of operating the ships, which

allows to identify a number of proposals, the implementation of which allows to maintain the economic efficiency

of transportation. The article offers a review of the main energy efficiency tools and ways to ensure the transport

efficiency of existing ships without modernization by operating them at reduced speeds and fuel consumption

and thereby minimizing carbon emissions, as well as developing a set of measures to improve the environmental

efficiency of cargo transportation.

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 16

Number 4

December 2022

DOI: 10.12716/1001.16.04.14

724

environmental efficiency of maritime transport (energy

consumption per unit of freight carried) is significant

compared to other modes of transport. The adoption of

the Resolution has put the international maritime

community "in the forefront" of the struggle to improve

energy efficiency, as in fact the new rules represent the

first industry standard of energy efficiency in the entire

global economy. New regulations incorporate a

number of measures to improve the ship's energy

efficiency, especially by reducing the amount of carbon

dioxide emissions into the atmosphere.

The problems of ensuring energy efficiency, along

with the improvement of environmental safety of

ships, have always received close attention from

leading scientists in the field of water transport

operation, as well as international institutions and

societies. The specifics of alternative fuels consumption

and prospects of conversion of ships of sea and river

transport to alternative fuels are reviewed in

(Volyanskaya et al., 2018; Karpenko & Koptseva, 2017;

Bezyukov et al., 2014). Tools and methods of

management of ships energy efficiency are studied in

(Energy Efficiency Measures, 2011; Hüffmeier &

Johanson, 2021; Rajeev, 2018). Revealing of the main

principles and measures on increase of energy

efficiency on ships is offered in (Maritime Cyprus,

2018). Guidelines for incorporating innovative

technologies for improving energy efficiency to

compute and validate the achieved performance for

ships under severe weather conditions and the

regulatory requirements from governing organizations

are presented in (Ship Energy Efficiency, 2016;

MEPC.1/Circ.684, 2009; MEPC.1/Circ.815, 2013;

GloMEEP, 2017). The operational energy efficiency

performance of a ship is analysed taking into account

the influence of navigational conditions and the

optimization of ship time in port (Hannes & Styhre,

2015). Analysis of the operational ship energy

efficiency considering navigation environmental

impacts (Yuan et al., 2017; Shivam, 2019). Methods for

ensuring the safety of navigation and new approaches

to assessment for controlling accidents in maritime

transport are developed in (Melnyk & Onyshchenko,

2022). Both technical and operational measures for

reducing emissions of greenhouse gases and

improving the environmental and energy efficiency of

ships have been studied in (Onishchenko et al., 2022).

Research on measures to prevent ship pollution and

emissions from ships has been studied by (Yan, 2011;

Rayhan, 2021). Accounting for well-to-wake carbon

dioxide equivalent emissions in maritime

transportation climate policies (Comer & Osipova,

2021). General issues of shipping safety and methods

to ensure the efficiency of cargo transportation in

(Chkalova et al., 2022; Gnap et al., 2022). Issues related

to ensuring the safety of ship navigation and accident-

free operation (Burmaka et al., 2022).

Considering the work of scientists in this field, it

should be noted that the task of searching for ways to

mitigate emissions of noxious substances resulting

from ship operation and the issues of enhancing their

level of energy efficiency by implementing various

operational methods is highly topical. Therefore, in this

paper it is proposed to analyse the main tools of ship

energy efficiency management, their interrelation and

dependence on the initiatives of the IMO, on energy

saving methods on board ships, integrated assessment

and prediction of their operational efficiency and

reduction of carbon footprint in the environment. In

addition, an analysis of the international regulatory

framework is necessary to find solutions to the

problem of emissions from ships through practical

measures both by ship crews to reduce fuel

consumption and by personnel working in the

maritime sector and dealing with environmental

protection and climate change issues.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

The energy saving in the transportation sector is

increasingly clear-cut and is becoming more and more

important in the context of the annual increase in

energy consumption, the growing degree of negative

impact on the environment, and the number of

emissions of harmful substances.

The MARPOL is one of the important conventions

that protect the marine environment from shipboard

pollution. Along with International Convention for the

Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), they are regarded as two

effective tools in the field of safety and environmental

protection of the IMO within the framework of

continuous improvement and technical evolution of

innovations to enhance the ships energy efficiency. In

view of the growing concern about the increase in

greenhouse gas emissions and fuel consumption, the

maritime industry's regulatory body the Marine

Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) of IMO

has introduced a number of steps for reducing

greenhouse gas emissions from ships. The primary

objective was to introduce two compulsory tools -

Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) and Ship

Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP). It

should be noted that the transportation sector is a

leader in atmospheric emissions statistics. Greenhouse

gas emissions by sector, where emissions are measured

in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2). This means non-

CO2 gases are weighted by the amount of warming

they cause over a hundred-year timescale (Fig.1).

Figure 1. Greenhouse gas emissions by industry sectors

Source: Our World in Data based on Climate Analysis

Indicators Tool (CAIT)

As known, EEDI is necessary to monitor the

quantity of carbon dioxide and harmful emissions from

ships and is a means of supporting and stimulating the

development of energy efficiency standards. The idea

behind its implementation is to achieve a reduction in

carbon dioxide emissions by improving the hull design

and optimizing the operation of ship technical systems

and equipment, thereby increasing the overall

725

efficiency of the ship. The level of carbon dioxide

emissions is calculated on the basis of carbon-based

fuel consumption. The fuel consumption level, in turn,

is determined by the power used for the propulsion

and the auxiliary capacity, which is measured under

certain design conditions. The transport performance

of the ship is estimated as the design power of its

propulsion system times the speed measured at

summer draught at maximum loaded condition and at

75 percent of the nominal capacity.

Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan is a

special instrument developed by IMO for measuring

and controlling the level of greenhouse gas emissions

(GHG) from ships. The SEEMP main objective is not

only to reduce the number of harmful emissions from

ships, but also to increase their operational efficiency

and reduce fuel consumption. Implementation of

SEEMP and EEDI tools for proper control of pollution

from ships takes place on all new ships built after 2013.

However, a SEEMP plan should be developed and

implemented by the shipowner or operator of the

vessel to potentially reduce the operating costs of the

vessel, which ultimately aims to reduce overall fuel

consumption, including emissions in the long term.

Ship energy efficiency best practices are planned

and implemented through a SEEMP, which should

describe optimal energy efficiency management

techniques to be applied on board the ship and at the

ship owner's office to ensure highest effectiveness of

the ship's voyage. Main tools for ship energy efficiency

management presented on Fig.2.

Figure 2. Main tools for ship energy efficiency management

The IMO regulatory framework states that the

Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI) refers

to one of the elements intended to be used as the ship's

"energy efficiency measurement" in the operational

stage to monitor the ship's overall energy efficiency

performance.

According to IMO guidance, the purpose of the

EEOI is to establish a coherent approach to measuring

a ship's energy efficiency per voyage or over a period

of time. The EEOI is anticipated to provide assistance

to ship owners and operators in evaluating the

efficiency of their fleets. It would also track individual

ships in operation and thus monitor the results of any

changes done to the ship or its operation. Actually,

EEOI is recommended as a monitoring instrument in

SEEMP. Same as EEDI, EEOI is the quantity of carbon

dioxide emitted by a ship on a unit of transportation

service per cargo mile.

Figure 3. Carbon dioxide emission by fuel type, 2020

EEOI guidelines are of a recommendatory nature

and represent a use of operational indicator as

applicable. Nevertheless, ship owners, ship operators

and stakeholders can use either the EEOI Guidelines or

an alternative method within their own environmental

management systems and consider adoption of the

principles contained therein in the development of

performance monitoring plans.

To assist in the consistent assessment of EEOI, the

guidance provides definitions such as:

− consumption of fuel defined as all types of fuel

consumed at sea and in port, or during the voyage

or time period concerned (days) by main engines,

auxiliary engines, boilers etc.

− distance travelled means actual distance made good

in nautical miles for the voyage or time period.

Guidelines EEOI applies to all vessels performing

transportation work. Types of cargoes are general and

include, but are not limited to: bulk and liquid cargoes,

general cargoes, containers, overweight cargoes,

frozen and refrigerated cargoes, lumber and log

products, freight carried on freighters, cars and trucks,

vehicles on Ro-Ro ferries and passenger ships.

The weight of the transported cargo or transport

work is the tonnage of the transported cargo or

transport work, expressed as follows:

− the metric tons of cargo to be carried should be used

for dry bulk carriers, liquid bulk carriers, gas

carriers, ro-ro ships, and general cargo ships;

− the number of TEUs or metric tons of total cargo

and containers should be used for container ships

carrying only containers;

− weight may be used for ships carrying a

combination of containers and other cargo for laden

TEUs of 10 tons and for empty TEUs of 2 tons;

− the number of passengers or the gross tonnage of

the ship should be used for passenger ships, taking

into account Ro-Ro passenger ships.

For some particular cases, the work performed may

be expressed as follows:

− the number of transport units or meters of occupied

lanes for car ferries and car carriers;

− number of TEUs empty or full for container carriers,

etc.

One must note that, for particular cases, the type of

cargo must selected accordingly to the objectives of

energy management and may differ between

companies. Voyage usually refers to the period

between departure from the present port and

departure from the subsequent port. Other alternative

definitions of voyage may also be acceptable. Coherent

726

application of the foregoing definitions within each

company is important for further comparisons of

energy efficiency indicators, in particular EEOI, across

the entire fleet.

The basic EEOI expression for a voyage is defined

as:

i carbon

cargo i i

FC C

EEOI





(1)

The management method allows EEOI to be

averaged over a number of voyages. If the average for

the given period or number of trips is obtained, the

EEOI is calculated as:

( )

ij Fj

cargo i i

FC C

AverageEEOI







(2)

where: j – type of fuel; i – number of voyages; FCij –

quantity consumed j- fuel quantity during the i-

voyage; CFj – the coefficient of fuel mass conversion to

CO2 (j-fuel); mcargo – cargo carried (tons) or work

performed (gross tonnage) for passenger ships; D –

distance made good in nautical miles, respectively, for

transported cargo or work performed.

Units of EEOI vary depending on the measurement

of the cargo or work performed, e.g., tons CO2/(ton-

miles), tons CO2/(TEU-miles), tons CO2/(man-miles),

etc. It is worth noting that equation (2) gives no simple

average EEOI value for the number of trips.

Consequently, a simple average of EEOI per voyage

should be avoided. The moving average calculation is

used instead to utilize the average value as a

performance measure.

The moving average, if used, can be calculated for

an appropriate period of time, for example, calendar

year or number of trips, which is assumed to be

statistically significant for the initial averaging period.

A moving average EEOI for this period or number of

trips is then calculated using equation (2), with the

following methodology. For a series of trips, e.g. 20

trips, the first moving average element, e.g. for a 4-trip

subset, comes by averaging the initial number of trips,

e.g. the initial 4 trips. Then, the subset is modified by

"shifting forward," i.e., the first trip from the previous

subset, e.g., trip 1, is excluded and the next trip, e.g.,

trip 5, is included. That new subset will give the second

element of the moving average. This process continues

until all trips are covered.

Ship's logs can be selected as primary data sources:

ship's deck log and other similar official records. It is

essential that there is enough information collected on

board about fuel type and quantity, travelled distance,

and cargo type to make a realistic estimate.

Quantity and type of fuel used, as well as the

distance travelled, should be constantly recorded by

the ship. If possible, the entire process must be

computerized. The coefficient CF used in the EEOI

equation (see (1) and (2)) is a dimensionless factor of

conversion between fuel consumption and carbon

dioxide emissions generated.

In addition, the EEOI must be a representational

value of the ship's operational energy efficiency over a

specific period that reflects the ship's overall trading

model. The following basic steps are usually required

to establish an EEOI:

− define the period covered by the EEOI;

− identify sources for data collection;

− collect the information;

− convert data into the corresponding format;

− calculate value of EEOI.

Data recording method should be consistent to

ensure that information can be readily compared and

analysed to assist in the retrieval of necessary

information. The data collected from ships must

contain the mileage travelled, fuel quantity and type

used, and any relevant information about the fuel that

may affect the quantity of carbon dioxide produced.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The EEDI (Energy Efficiency Design Index) is an

optional tool but it allows the shipbuilding sector to

utilize the latest technologies for commercial ship

design if they meet the required energy efficiency

levels and parameters. EEDI establishes a minimum

level of energy efficiency per tonnage mile for various

ship types and sizes. Calculation of energy efficiency

parameters for existing ships is part of the plan to

implement environmental efficiency improvement

measures. For the standard configuration of the vessel,

the propulsion system (diesel engine) is directly

connected to the fixed pitch propeller and the power

plant consists of four auxiliary diesel generators. The

energy-saving equipment installed on board, which

should have been taken into account in the EEDI

calculations, includes a waste heat steam boiler. The

algorithm for calculating the environmental energy

efficiency of a container ship is given below.

The procedure as follows:

6. Determine the maximum value - EEDI(max):

( )

max

EEDI a D

−

=

(3)

where: ai, cj – dimensionless empirical coefficients of

the i-th ship’s type, Dw(i) – vsl’s deadweight, tons.

7. Determine the subject ship’s operational EEDI(OPS):

( ) ( )

1 0 ).01( ··

OPS max

EEDI E EEDI=−

(4)

where: EEDI(max) – maximum EEDI of Dw(i) of given ship.

The value of E is a piecewise continuous function of

three variables: ship’s type i = 4; ship’s deadweight

Dw(i); certain time period.

8. Determining the estimated greenhouse gas

emission rate EEDI(GHG):

( ) ( ) ( )

( )

( ) ( )

( )

( ) ( )

( )

(

)

( )

()

nME nPG

GHG hq AE AE hq

ME k FME k ME k F AE PG k

nr nr

FAE AE FME ME Dw w ref w

r k AEr k r k MEr k

EEDI f P C SFC P C SFC f P

f P C S f P C S f D V f





= + + +





−+







(5)

where: CF – specific (mass) CO2 content at complete

combustion of carbon in fuel (Table 1).

Table 1. Types of fuel used on ships

727

________________________________________________

№ Type Notes Carbon CF

content relative

g/l units

________________________________________________

1 Diesel/Gas Oil ISO 8217 0,875 3,2060

2 Light Fuel Oil (LFQ) ISO 8217 0,860 3,1510

3 Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) ISO 8217 0,850 3,1144

4 Liquefied Petroleum Propane 0,82 – 3,00 –

Gas (LPG) Butane 0,83 3,030

________________________________________________

Vref = 19,0 – ship’s speed, kn;

Dw(i) – for given ship’s type (container) is ratio 65% from

deadweight;

Dw(i) = 113000 ˣ 0,65 = 73430 tons;

P(x) – aggregate power of main and auxiliary engines

(respectively (PME) and (PAE), kW;

( ) ( ) ( )

0,75 0,75 51000 38250

i i i

PME MCRME PPS=  − =  =

(6)

where:

PPS(i) – The output power of each installed shaft

generator divided by the performance factor of the

shaft generator, 0.75, kW;

MCRME(i) – maximum continuous output of the i-th

engine, kW;

PPG(i) – A part of the nominal output of each generator

engine divided by the weighted average efficiency of

the electric generator, 0.75, kW, (in case of joint

operation of shaft and electric generators) PPS(i) +

PPG(i), provided in the ship's running mode, this

scheme should be included in the calculations;

Pmer(i) – A part of the main engine output reduced due

to the implementation of innovative energy-efficient

mechanisms and technologies, 0.75, kW;

PAEr(i) – is the output of auxiliary engines, reduced

due to innovative technologies in the field of electricity

and energy efficiency field, kW;

PAE – Auxiliary engine power needed to support the

continuous maximum running load, which includes

the required propulsion and service load, but excludes

the propulsion system load: steering gear, cargo and

ballast pumps, and cargo handling equipment of a

fully laden ship at Vref;

( )

0,025 250 0,025 51000 250 152

n ME

ME i

P MCR kW

= + =  + =



(7)

S(x) – specific fuel consumption of the engine, g/kWh,

satisfying requirements of E2 or E3 NOx test cycle

(Technical Code, 2008);

SME(i) - specific fuel consumption which is recorded in

engine international air pollution prevention certificate

(EIAPP) for 75% of the power of a particular MCR

engine, or by torque indicator (for engines belonging to

the D2 or C1 NOx test cycle);

SAE(i) - specific fuel consumption is recorded in the

EIAPP certificate for 50% of the MCR power, or by the

torque value, for engines without EIAPP certificate and

its power is below 130 kW. Value to be determined by

the manufacturer and to be used by the competent

body to validate the International Energy Efficiency

Certificate;

fh – correction factor which considering the ship

structural elements (for ships with ice class to be

selected from MERC.1/Circ.681 ANNEX VI, for the

other types of ships assumed to be equal 1, if there are

no additional elements that increase the resistance to

motion);

fw – dimensionless coefficient indicating the ship speed

decreasing in case of heaving and pitching (determined

on sea trials, by calculation, or taken equal to 1 until

specified);

fr(i) – coefficient of the availability of energy efficiency

innovative technology (assumed to be 1 for heat

recovery systems);

fdw – cargo capacity coefficient (for ships without ice

class to be equal to 1).

9. EEDI(GHG) ˂ EEDO(OPS) = 14,98 ˂ 16,8 which mans that

vessel is energy efficient in terms of environmental

friendliness and its modernization is not required.

4 CONCLUSION

The research and calculations show that the considered

vessel can be operated without appropriate

modernization. To reduce fuel consumption and,

accordingly, emissions of carbon dioxide,

recommended to use the main engine in part-load

mode. In this case, the main engine capacity will not

exceed 50-60% of the nominal and the vessel will be

mainly operated at speeds corresponding to slow

steaming mode. The development and application of

the environmental efficiency management plan

enables the ship to fully meet the requirements of IMO

Resolution No. 684 for the reduction of emissions of

harmful gases that cause the greenhouse effect. Thus,

the energy intensity of the transport sector must be

significantly reduced in order to achieve energy

efficiency goals. It is also necessary to develop and

maintain documented monitoring methodologies and

measuring equipment on a regular basis. Importantly,

the source of the assigned values must be properly

registered. This will help in areas requiring

improvement and will be useful for any subsequent

analysis. On the basis of IMO policy and with the

objective of avoiding excessive administration burdens

on shipboard personnel, is it advisable that EEOI

monitoring should be carried out by shore-based

personnel based on information collected from

relevant records, such as logbooks, service and

technical logs, etc. Necessary data can be obtained

during internal audits as required by the ISM Code.

Other issues of increasing energy efficiency of ships,

such as replacement of atmospheric air by synthetic

oxygen, resulting in a significant decrease in

conversion of hydrocarbon carrier and, consequently,

to lower carbon dioxide emissions and issues of

implementation and efficiency improvement of

ballastless ship passages can be further explored.

Measures to improve the ship transportation

effectiveness of ship and provide the efficient use of

energy resources on board are presented in Table 2.

728

Table 2. Measures to increase ship environmental efficiency and transportation effectiveness

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Measures to ensure efficient Methods of implementation

and environmentally friendly

energy consumption

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Passage planning and weather Contracting with services that provide weather forecasting and optimal routing services.

routing service

Optimal ship speed selection Since the given ship, design speed is 19 knots at 75% of the propulsion load, the shipping

company should recommend for the vessel to switch to a propulsion capacity that should

not exceed 50-60% of the nominal and the vessel will be mainly operated at speeds

corresponding to "Slow Steaming".

Up-to-date navigational charts, Use corrected navigation charts and nautical publications to plan upcoming voyage and

nautical publications and guides route selection.

Optimal ship’s ballast plan and To increase the ship's speed during ballast passages, arrange optimum trim and heel,

trimming propeller and bulb immersion.

Technical condition of the To increase the ship's speed during sea passages, it is necessary to observe the technical

ship’s hull condition of the underwater part of the ship's hull, especially after long stays in tropical

waters

Technical condition of the In order to achieve the optimal speed of the vessel, it is necessary to monitor the technical

propeller condition of the propeller and perform its polishing in a timely manner

Main engine, auxiliary engines, Proper and up to date maintenance of the main engine, auxiliary engines, boiler plant and

boiler plant and other equipment other equipment should be performed in a timely and qualitative manner according to the

technical condition approved schedule in order to decrease the fuel consumption and lubricating oil, etc.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

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