143

1 INTRODUCTION

Since the 1980s, the rapid development of remotely

operated aircraft has been dated. However, the

progress in miniaturization over the past 15 years has

triggered a truly rapid development of unmanned

aerial vehicles (different classes). They are used in

many fields, ranging from military aspects, through

commercial and scientific applications, and ending

with entertainment. In this article, the term

"unmanned aerial vehicle" will be used

interchangeably with the term "drone" to mean an

aerial robot.

Increasingly, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

are successfully replacing airplanes and helicopters,

performing their tasks. They can constitute a tool

supporting human activity and be used as a means of

providing information and knowledge about the

surrounding environment, perform work in difficult

and often inaccessible conditions, as well as deadly,

carrying various types of weapons and armament.

Certification of Unmanned Aircraft (UA)

G. Pettke

1

, W. Kozyro

1

, P. Gałka

1

, G. Trzeciak

2

& P. Wołejsza

3

1

Polish Register of Shipping, Gdańsk, Poland

2

Squadron Ltd., Gdańsk, Poland

3

Maritime University of Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland

ABSTRACT: PRS (Polish Register of Shipping) is an expert institution acting on the international market, that -

by conducting business for the benefit of the community - through the formulation of the requirements, survey

and issue of the appropriate documents, assists State Administrations, Underwriters and customers in ensuring

the safety of people, floating objects, land undertakings, carried cargo and the natural environment. PRS is a

body accredited for certification of management systems, as well as a notified body in the European

Commission for conducting product conformity assessment procedures with EU directives and regulations, and

certify of personnel and processes. Subject and scope of the Publication The Publication defines requirements

and procedures of conformity assessment process of Unmanned Aircraft (UA) and the technical possibilities of

their use in the maritime economy segment. Purpose of the publication: Defining technical and formal

requirements for design, construction and operation of the Unmanned Aircraft (UA), Determining the scope

and methodology of conformity assessment process of Unmanned Aircraft (UA), Determining the technical

possibilities of using Unmanned Aircraft (UA) in the maritime economy segment. The publication includes the

following issues: basic principles and design requirements as well as technical regulations that ensure the

design of the Unmanned Aircraft (UA), as a safe product in operation; the scope and methodology of

conformity assessment of Unmanned Aircraft (UA); principles and scope of technical supervision over the

Unmanned Aircraft (UA), requirements set by PRS in using Unmanned Aircraft (UA) on sea-going ships. The

conclusions of the paper: indication of the way to obtain BSP certification, the basis for launching the procedure

for developing the NO defence standard for the certification of ships and naval auxiliary units for cooperation

with Unmanned Aircraft (UA).

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 15

Number 1

March 2021

DOI: 10.12716/1001.15.01.14

144

In order to standardize the terms used in this

article, it has been assumed that:

− unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV / RPAS - Remotely

Piloted Aircraft Systems) generic name of the type

of aircraft (mainly aerodines) moving in the

airspace without flying personnel (i.e. pilot)

performing aviation activities (including flight);

− Unmanned Aircraft System (SBSP, UAS / RPAS -

Remotely Piloted Aircraft System) is a set of all

elements necessary to perform a flight by an

unmanned aerial vehicle. The essential elements of

SBSP are:

− Ground Control Station (GCS): is a station used

to control an (unmanned) aircraft, consisting of

both configured hardware and control software.

Such stations have a set of switches and control

devices, as well as a screen on which

information about the UAV status is displayed.

− Unmanned Aerial Vehicle or an aerial platform:

it is an element of the SBSP that moves through

the air. It is an exact unmanned aerial vehicle

− Pilot of an unmanned aircraft - a person who

has control over an unmanned aircraft by direct

control or by exercising supervision over the

course of the flight in an automated mode.

− Radio link (communication): a dedicated

ground-air-ground radio direction used to

transmit (ground-to-air) commands and (air-to-

ground) reports between UAV and GCS. The

executive elements of radio communication are

antenna assemblies. As a rule, antenna

assemblies are a component of GCS, however,

solutions are used to arrange the antenna

assemblies separately like transmitters (in order

to increase the UAV's range).

The above list includes the most important

elements of UAV systems. Additionally, the UAV

systems elements are ground protection elements,

such as: catapults or other launch aids, chargers, fuel

pumps, diagnostic equipment, starters, consumables,

etc.

2 USE OF UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES

Currently, drones are used by state institutions, the

military, scientific and research centers, companies

conducting commercial activities and private

individuals. The operation of drones is more effective,

cheaper, more secretive and safer for pilots than the

use of manned aircraft. The large-scale use of drones

during the war between Armenia and Azerbaijan in

September 2020 showed that precise combat

operations can be conducted far beyond the front lines

without exposing pilots to the risk of being shot

down. The use of circulating ammunition released

from BSP containers on a massive scale effectively

destroyed groupings of troops along with military

technology. The area of application of drones is

constantly expanding. Drones are used for launching

satellites into orbits around the Earth, transporting

contaminated medical samples and medicines to

laboratories and hospitals, inspections, geodesy,

protection of people and property, photography and

counting the number of animals. With the

simultaneous use of thousands of drones (swarms),

outdoor shows are organized with complex

inscriptions and spatial drawings that affect human

imagination.

The maritime industry is also opening up to the

use of drones. Big players in maritime and aviation

business (Wilhelmsen and Airbus) joined their forces

to offer a parcel service to vessels, which is executed

by drones [3]. The first commercial long range drone

delivery to vessel took place in Singapore on 29th of

April 2020 [4]. Only 7 months later World's First

Night-time Drone Delivery From Shore to Ship took

place in Singapore [5]. A short time between those

two actions shows how fast is the progress in the

drone technology.

There are also known uses of drones on the

domestic market. On October 5, 2020, an unmanned

aerial vehicle was handed over for use of the Port of

Gdynia Authority S.A., dedicated and designed for

the needs of the port. As part of the research and

development project called "Aviation Monitoring

System", a reliable multirotor platform in the X8

system was created, adapted to work in very difficult

port conditions: strong wind, high air salinity and

disturbances in drone-operator communication [6].

The use of Hydrodron, developed by the Polish

company Marine Technology, for hydrographic works

was also tested at the Port of Gdynia [7].

Another project that somehow integrates

unmanned marine and air solutions is AVAL [8].

Autonomous Vessel with an Air Look is co-financed

by National Centre of Research and Development. The

project consists of three integrated technologies, i.e.:

UAVs, developed by Bialystok University of

Technology (project’s leader), Object’s Recognition

and Classification Awareness (ORCA) System,

developed by UpLogic sp. z o.o. and Autonomous

Navigation System, developed by Sup4Nav Co. ltd.

[1]. All components have been tested [2] in The Ship

Handling Research and Training Centre at Ilawa

owned by the Foundation for Safety of Navigation

and Environment Protection [9]. Finally, they were

successfully tested in real conditions on Unity Line

ferries m/f Wolin and m/f Gryf, in September 2020.

The NAVDEC system [10], which was the ancestor

of the mentioned Autonomous Navigation System,

was certified in 2015 and recertified in 2020 by Polish

Register of Shipping. Preparations are currently

underway for the certification of all three components

of the AVAL system.

There are two types of drones delivered in the

AVAL project. The first is Hybrid Unmanned Aerial

Vehicle. It has a fixed wing platform with vertical

take-off and landing (VTOL) function. The maximum

speed is over 100 km/h on a forward marching engine

in horizontal flight. The maximum flight range is

about 200 km, while the maximum flight time is up to

2 hours. It is dedicated to recognize the objects at the

greater distance. The second one is Multirotor

Helicopter in six-arm configuration. The power

supply and data transmission is provided by the 50

meters long dedicated cable, which makes the flight

time practically unlimited. It has ability to fly in wind

condition up to 60 km/h and is dedicated to recognize

the objects at the shorter distance.

145

Reliability of such systems has obviously to be

assessed and validation methods have to be

developed.

2.1 Application of cameras and object identification

process - ORCA System

COLREG clearly states in the Regulation 7 that all

available means should be employed to determine if

the risk of collision exists and highlights in paragraph

7 (c) that OOW should not make assumptions on the

basis of scanty information, especially scanty radar

information. This shows how important for the safety

of navigation is that all objects in the ship’s vicinity

are properly identified.

The ORCA system uses a state-of-the-art detection

system based on an artificial neural network. As soon

as it detects an object, estimation of the location of the

object is made and the information about the class of

the object as well as its geographical coordinates are

sent to the autonomous navigation system.

ORCA monitors the area around the vessel (up to

10 Nm) using a custom-built camera vision system.

The images are analysed in real-time by an AI-based

algorithm which detects, classifies and geolocates

potentially hazardous objects. There are many image

recognition and classification systems on the market

for objects as diverse as diseases and cars. Unlike

those, images form in the marine environment present

specific and very complex challenges. These

challenges can be grouped in four blocks: a) horizon

detection when the camera is installed on a mobile

platform (ship); b) registration - the situation where

different frames in a scene correspond to the same

physical scene with matching coordinates; c) water

background subtraction which is continuously

dynamic both in spatial and temporal dimensions due

to waves, wakes, foams, and specular reflections

which are inferred as foreground by typical

background detection method; d) foreground object

detection - since general dynamic background

subtraction and foreground tracking problems do not

require the detection of static objects, no integrated

approaches exist that can simultaneously detect the

stationary and mobile foreground objects. This is an

open challenge for the maritime scenario. Current

research on object detection in images may be applied

for detection of objects in individual images, thus

catering for both static and mobile objects. However,

the complicated maritime environment with the

potential of occlusion, orientation, scale, and variety

of objects make it computationally challenging.

Figure 1. The first ORCA prototype installed on m/f Wolin.

The following table shows the main features of the

ORCA technology and navigational challenges that

are solved by image processing algorithms collected

by the vision device.

The cameras used in ORCA system can be

mounted on ship’s superstructure. Both drones i.e.

VTOL and multirotor, can be also equipped with

ORCA system

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

ORCA functions Problem solved

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Detection of static and dynamic objects, 20 m long** and The system continuously monitors the surroundings of a vessel

placed within 10* nautical miles (Nm) from a ship or yacht. and simultaneously detects, classifies, and locates visible

objects.

This improves the navigator’s ability to identify hazardous

objects around the ship and make decisions regarding

appropriate anti-collision manoeuvre options.

Classification** of detected objects within 5 Nm into the Determine the risk of collision with a specific object based on its

following categories: ship, yacht, iceberg, whale, container. category and location. Verification of the navigator's ability to

see and identify all objects through binoculars.

Geolocation of the detected objects within 2 Nm*. Provision of accurate data about the category and geographical

coordinates of the object to the anti-collision algorithm, which

automatically generates an anti-collision manoeuvre or anti-

collision trajectory.

Self-tuning of the image recognition algorithm Self-tuning improves the efficiency of detection, geolocation,

and classification of the objects. Self-tuning is applicable for

repetitive routes - for example in the case of ferries.

Data fusion with AIS, ARPA (radar) and digital maps Enhancement of maritime navigation systems with ORCA's

real-

time data can reduce the need for the navigator's eye

observation - the key function of autonomous ships in the

future.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Ranges for a vision sensor mounted 24 m above sea level (observation deck on ferry Wolin - see Fig.2.)

**The ability to detect and classify an object depends on its size and distance from the ship or yacht. The value of the

parameter is calculated under the assumption that the measured dimension of the object is parallel to the camera's

projection plane.

146

2.2 Limitations of unmanned aerial vehicles and collision

avoidance issues

The law that has been imposed on unmanned aerial

vehicles requires that they always give way to the

manned ship. The operator - now called the pilot

controlling manually or only supervising automatic

flight, is responsible for this duty. It does not matter if

sensors, cameras, transponders are used - the pilot is

obliged to make the right maneuver if necessary to

give way. The right of way in aviation is regulated by

the Convention on International Civil Aviation,

signed in Chicago on December 7, 1944 - Chicago

Convention (Journal of Laws of 1959, No. 35, item 212,

as amended) - Annex 2: Rules of the Air.

The same convention (Article 8 – Pilotless aircraft)

states that "Each contracting State undertakes to

ensure that the flight of such aircraft without a pilot in

regions open to civil aircraft shall be so controlled as

to obviate danger to civil aircraft" .

Until now, it was regulated in the regulation of the

Minister of Infrastructure on the exclusion of the

application of certain provisions of the Act - Aviation

Law to certain types of aircraft and determining the

conditions and requirements for the use of these

aircraft.

In the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU)

2019/947, it is the responsibility of the pilot to inform

that the pilot stops the flight if the operation poses a

threat to other aircraft and to impose on the operator

of the unmanned aircraft the obligation to avoid

collisions with the manned aircraft.

3 USE OF UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES

Drones with specific characteristics can be used for

specific tasks. The division of drones may result from

their construction, purpose, energy source used, level

of autonomy, weight, range and operating time,

operating altitude, load capacity in the form of

equipment, wingspan, possibility of cooperation with

other aircraft, method of take-off and landing, and

many other criteria.

Due to their construction, drones are divided into

rotor (single- or multi-rotor) and airframes.

It is worth familiarizing yourself with the

advantages and disadvantages of these two types with

regard to maritime use / ship and naval operations.

1. Airframes:

− Advantages

− longer flight time than rotors (in the same

UAV class)

− higher lifting capacity (in the same UAV

class)

− higher speeds

− faster finding of the airframe beyond the

outline of the ship / naval ship during take-

off. This reduces the risk of catching on

elements of the ship's infrastructure during

take-off

− possibility of a gliding flight

− Disadvantages

− Necessity to use start assist devices

(launchers)

− Necessity to use landing aids (nets, rope

clamps)

− The need to consider pulling the airframe out

of the water after its landing

Figure 2. Photo showing the launch of the Scan Eagle UAV

from the deck of the ship. In the foreground you can see an

aircraft launcher. The use of airframe (UAV) on board ships

requires taking into account the presence of such devices on

board. Source: https://www.navy.gov.au

Figure 3. The Camcopter 100 drone in front of the GCS and

antenna unit. Operation of the UAV from the deck must

take into account the need to deploy these elements on the

ship / naval ship. Source: https://penaviation.com

Figure 4. Scan Eagle landing sequence on board. Visible

mast for intercepting the plane. After folding, the mast must

find a place on the ship's deck. Source:

https://www.navaltoday.com

147

2. Rotors

− Advantages

− Vertical take-off and landing

− Precise navigating ability to fly past

obstacles

− Possibility to use wired power for specific

types of missions

− Ability to hover

− Disadvantages

− Shorter flight time (in the same UAV class)

− Lower lifting capacity (same UAV class)

− Lower cruising speeds (in the same UAV

class)

Figure 5. Camcopter 100 rotor aboard a vessel. Source:

https://dronebelow.com

Figure 6. Sample VTOL airframe drone. Source:

https://test.threod.com

Figure 7. VTOL developed within the AVAL project. Source:

avalproject.pl

The solution may be VTOL (Vertical Take off and

Landing) airframes. These are structures that combine

the features of a rotor and airframe. They have wings

used for flights and rotors for take-off and landing. In

this case, the disadvantage is the need to use inferior-

lighter sensors due to the allocation of a part of the

load capacity to VTOL elements.

As you can see, there is no rule as to what UAVs

should be used for operation from the deck of ships

and naval ships. One solution is that carrying out

tasks for ships and naval ships does not have to

require operating from their decks. The length of the

UAV flight and the possibility of changing the crew

during the flight make it possible to cooperate with

vessels. However, this requires adapting the vessels to

such cooperation by installing transmitting and

receiving devices or only receiving devices. In

addition, rules for such cooperation must be

established.

4 POSSIBILITIES OF USING UAVS

Operations with UAVs are already standard in

operations both on land and on the sea. Performing

tasks over water requires cooperation with vessels. In

order for this cooperation to be established, both the

UAV and the ships and naval ships must meet the

requirements for its undertaking. On the watercraft,

there are limitations related, on the one hand, to the

size of the deck area intended for air operations, as

well as to a large impact of hydrometeorological

conditions on the conduct of take-off and landing

operations.

For this reason, rotor drones and planes with

vertical take-off and landing capabilities (VTOL -

Vertical Take Off and Landing) are used on board

naval ships. On naval ships, it is possible to pick up

wing drones from the water immediately after a drone

landed on a parachute near the ship. Another way to

take over a winged drone is to intercept it using

flexible nets on board. In order to use such a UAV

which is dependent on the ship's crew in picking it up

from the water or for spreading the net for its landing,

a man is needed for handling it onboard. Is it possible

to use UAV on autonomous units, where the role of a

human being is slim or none?

4.1 Application of unmanned aerial vehicles

The scope of UAV's tasks based on naval ships

depends on the technical capabilities of the installed

devices, sensors and transferred armament. Ship

drones can do:

− reconnaissance, tracking, escorting, patrolling,

surveillance, guidance;

− conducting search and rescue operations;

− transfer of light loads between naval ships and the

shore;

− detection of electromagnetic radiation and

destruction of detected radar stations;

− conducting radio-electronic warfare;

− detection of chemical, biological and radioactive

contamination;

− detection of submarines using the drop-down

sonar station;

− determining the effects of an attack by own and

enemy forces;

148

− laser highlighting of detected and identified

objects for destruction;

− destroying detected targets with high accuracy

using precision weapons (e.g. circulating

ammunition, gliding bombs, etc.);

− inspection of damage to hulls and tanks, archiving

photos;

− training for the anti-aircraft forces in the fight

against air targets and at the same time being

phantom targets;

− terrain scanning and mapping.

4.2 Technical requirements

On the basis of the scope of tasks that the UAV would

be assigned, relevant technical requirements will be

set to be complied with. They concern, inter alia:

− requirements for the structure and strength

(degree of resistance to weather conditions,

mechanical strength and degree of resistance to

water and moisture in salinity conditions);

− adequate battery capacity (ensuring the ability to

complete the task in a specified time);

− suited camera equipped with matrices, ensuring

perfect visibility in the worst lighting conditions;

− requirements for lighting installations and

equipment used in operations (lighting

characteristics and lighting sectors);

− requirements for systems and equipment

supporting operations (related to communication

and equipment);

− additional requirements depending on the later

application and tasks to be performed by UAV.

At this point, the disadvantages of drones should

also be mentioned. And they include:

− Lack of a pilot on board and, consequently, much

more complicated way of organizing the flight

than in the case of manned aircraft (MAC);

− The need to ensure a stable radio link;

− Signal transmission delays resulting in inaccurate

pilot situational awareness. Delays in the signal

circulation from the command by the pilot

(enabling the option on the GCS screen) to the

receipt of information about the reaction of the air

platform mean that the information displayed on

the GCS screen is always delayed in relation to the

current state of the air platform;

− Limiting the number of stimuli / information about

the state of the air platform that reach the UAV

pilot. The UAV pilot receives information about

the state of the platform only visually, while the

manned aircraft (MAC) pilot receives information

also with other senses (e.g. eyesight - instrument

panel, hearing - engine operation rhythm, smell -

unusual smells, e.g. smoke, touch - non-standard

vibrations of the platform or control sticks / yokes);

− A complicated spatial orientation of the UAV pilot.

The MAC pilot takes a position in the aircraft axis

facing the direction of flight. This allows to keep to

the basic rules governing human behavior and

activities of the aircraft operator. For example: the

right side of the aircraft is also the right side of the

pilot. On the other hand, the UAV pilot takes the

place of the above-mentioned GCS and takes place

in front of the screens. On the other hand, the GCS

does not need to be oriented in the direction of

flight. An additional difficulty is the fact that the

UAV is used to perform tasks related mainly to

directing the observation instruments towards the

ground, not to the flight. One solution to this issue

is mounting cameras in the noses of the UAV.

However, this solution necessitates additional

image transmission at the expense of the main

transmission and necessitates an increase in the

number of crew members.

The key problem of the ship's cooperation with the

UAV is the lack of a pilot on board the aircraft, with

all the related legal, organizational and technical

consequences. Depending on the degree of autonomy

of the UAV, its activities are supervised by a pilot-

operator with appropriate knowledge, skills and

experience.

4.3 Levels of autonomy

At the first level, when we are dealing with partial

autonomy, the pilot-operator has the ability to

remotely control the aircraft using data provided by

sensors installed on the aircraft. Complex military

systems to support UAVs require the cooperation of a

team of people. Most often, the pilot-operator is

responsible for the correct UAV flight, and the sensor

operator is responsible for collecting information from

sensors, using armament and transferring the

developed data to the ship's command and

communication systems. In the case of small and

medium drones, their activity within the range of

visual visibility can be supervised directly from the

ship's deck.

A typical ship's unmanned aerial vehicle system

consists of:

− ship platform (the UAV system carrier);

− a separate UAV take-off and landing area on board

the carrier (take-off and landing area, the location

of the launch pad, the location of the intercepting

nets, etc.);

− naval aviation infrastructure related to UAV

service;

− ship's UAV control and guidance station;

− unmanned aerial vehicle systems;

− communication system between the ship's control

and guidance station and UAV.

The elements of the UAV system may be combined

or may be adapted to the carried or planned for

cooperation aircraft.

The size and purpose of the UAV determines the

parameters of the carrier capabilities. UAVs can be

placed on surface ships and submarines. In the case of

submarines, the use of UAVs is limited. Re-use of the

drone depends on the possibility of its seizure after

the mission has been completed and its launch in the

area of the submarine's operation. It is connected with

the necessity of surfacing, and thus: the possibility of

losing the hidden operation of the naval ship. The

larger the vessel, the greater the range of UAV

selection (in terms of size, weight, wingspan,

propulsion type) and its number. Compared to

airplanes and helicopters performing typical tasks at

sea, the size and weight of the UAV is smaller, which

gives the possibility of embarkation of a greater

number of the UAV and their use on a larger scale. At

present, a subclass of the aircraft carrier class is being

149

created, in which UAVs play a significant role. Most

of the naval ships of the destroyer, frigate, corvette

and patrol ship classes currently being built have a

ship aviation infrastructure adapted to conducting air

operations with the use of helicopters, hence the

adaptation of naval ships of these classes to

cooperation with UAVs is easier.

4.4 Autonomous ships

Autonomous vehicles are already state-of-the-art in

many land-based transport modes. There exist several

examples of automated subways, self-driving

intralogistics vehicles or automated guided vehicles

(AGV) on modern container terminals. There are also

very wide-ranging approaches of autonomous control

concepts in modern aviation. Consequently,

autonomy is also seen as a possibility for maritime

transport to meet today’s and tomorrow’s

competitiveness, safety and sustainability challenges.

On the most advanced version of the watercraft, the

decision-making and control functions are performed

by intelligent systems operating on the basis of data

from various sensors and data acquisition systems,

installed on board or operating outside the vessel.

Examples of the levels of ship autonomy are given in

the figure.

Figure 8: Source: www.unmanned-ship.org/munin/about/

the-autonomus-ship

The use of UAVs on autonomous units should be

determined by the level of ship autonomy. Based on

the autonomy degrees, it is possible to determine

appropriate tasks and adjust the procedures that the

UAV and the crew (if any) should fulfill.

Degrees of autonomy (IMO):

1. Ship with automated processes and decision

support - seafarers are on board to operate and

control shipboard systems and functions. Some

operations may be automated),

2. Remotely controlled ship with seafarers on board -

the ship is controlled and operated from another

location, but seafarers are on board,

3. Remotely controlled ship without seafarers on

board - the ship is controlled and operated from

another location. There are no seafarers on board,

4. Fully autonomous ship - the operating system of

the ship is able to make decisions and determine

actions by itself.

The above division is not hierarchical. It should be

assumed that during a single voyage a ship can

navigate with more than one degree of autonomy. In

this case, the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle should be

adapted to the autonomy levels that will be applied

during the voyage.

4.5 Certification and the role of Classification Societies

The current classification regulations do not apply to

autonomous ships, but we are aware of that this

classification process will begin soon. Guidelines from

classification societies are available. These documents

allow for certification to the extent agreed with the

client, which allows the certification and release to

service procedures to be carried out in agreement

with the Administration.

The Polish Register of Shipping plans to introduce

a special additional mark of the DOCK DRON class

into the classification regulations, for ships that intend

to use the unmanned aerial vehicles for navigation. At

the request of the Shipowner, PRS will be able to

assign a class to a newly built or existing ship. The

assigning of an additional symbol will be confirmed

by an appropriate entry in the Certificate of Class.

Additional marks in the symbol of class define the

ship type, obligatory requirements or limitations

resulting from the ship type or its seaworthiness, and

define additional features of the ship's structure or

adaptation. Additional marks are placed in the

symbol of class after fulfilling the requirements

specified in the relevant parts of the Rules. In the case

of an additional DOCK DRON class mark, special

requirements will be created for the ship and for the

device itself.

The requirements for the DOCK DRON class will

be divided based on the type of ship and the type of

drone that would be used on the vessel. The

regulations applicable to a given UAV will be

adjusted to the tasks to be performed by UAV.

Basic requirements to be met by a unit:

− requirements for the location of the flight deck

surface, specifying safe heights and distances to

obstacles when cooperating with UAVs, landing

deck marking and arrangement of deck lights;

− requirements for lighting installations and

equipment used in aircraft operations;

− requirements for the structure and strength of the

flight deck and its security;

− requirements for equipment and facilities

supporting on-board operations;

− system requirements, depending on the purpose of

the UAV;

− requirements for fastening equipment;

− requirements for means of communication and

landing site control equipment adapted to the

operated UAV

− requirements for the navigational equipment of the

ship;

− and many others.

The proposed DOCK DRON class mark will

contain additional symbols, characterizing a specific

unit as well as tasks that can be performed using BSP.

150

It is worth mentioning that autonomous units,

depending on their autonomy level, will have the

option of receiving an additional DOCK DRON class

mark. The requirements will be adapted to the

autonomy of the unil. A ship with a limited number of

crew will require a qualified person with appropriate

knowledge, skills and experience. Adapting the UAV

to the unit will be essential because there are aircrafts

that require human presence in order to use the

launch pad or to deploy the landing net.

In autonomous units, such an Unmanned Aerial

Vehicle operated from shore by a pilot makes it

possible to provide additional safety for both the ship

and its surroundings. The ship equipment systems

itself, do not ensure location of every object detected

by the system. Having an UAV onboard, we are able

to quickly identify an object, e.g. an iceberg or a small

yacht, thus getting the chance to avoid a collision and

reduce the risk of danger.

4.6 Adaptation of the existing infrastructure to receiving

drones

Having a flight deck, ships can manage vertical take

off and landing of drones. The development of

technology, increasing the efficiency of processors and

gathering experience from the operation of existing

drones contribute to their miniaturization (reduction

in dimensions and weight). The use of more efficient

energy sources increases the operational range of the

UAV and extends the duration of missions and flights.

The development of this dynamically developing

industrial sector enables the use of UAVs on units

smaller than the corvette class.

Problems with using drones from the board of

surface ships include a number of technical issues.

They include:

− the need to allocate space on board the unit for

storing the drone.

− the need to provide logistic infrastructure,

including maintenance and repair infrastructure

− the need to modernize the vessel if the use of

ATOL (Automatic Take off And Landing) systems

is planned

− the need to provide fuel or power energy

infrastructure appropriate for UAVs that may land

on board the a vessel

Organizational and staffing problems should be

added to the above problem areas, such as:

− the need to train crew members in the use of UAVs

− the need to train UAV pilots for take-off and

landing operations on / from the decks of vessels

− the need to take into account new crew specialties

or the need to provide UAV maintenance

personnel on board the vessel

− the need to provide UAV pilots on board the vessel

and the related organizational and technical

problems

The BSP (rotor) landing operation on board may

serve as an example of difficult operating UAVs from

the deck of a ship / naval ship. As indicated above, the

BSP pilot receives information about the platform

condition (including its position) with a delay. The

landing area moves with the movements of the ship's

hull. The UAV pilot has access to the control station

screen only (if he is outside the ship). Thus, traditional

landing aids are of limited use. The use of ATOL

systems requires a trained person who can interrupt

landing in case of problems. This solution requires the

UAV to start landing again and repeat the procedure.

In the case of placing a pilot onboard a ship,

assigning one person from the UAV personnel for the

duration of the voyage is necessary. In the case of

systems with more persons, the decision results in

separating at least two persons(pilot and sensor

operator).

4.7 Technical capabilities of drones

It is fairly common to believe that commercially

available drones are suitable for tasks at the seaside.

In the case of these drones, there are two basic

limitations that make that the use of such drones,

although incidentally possible, fails to fulfil

expectations.

Those are:

− Very low flight duration (approx. 30 min.). This is

catalog parameter. In the case of actual use,

approx. 10 - 15% of the time (% battery charge)

should be deducted for take-off and landing

operations. Effective use is then about 20 minutes.

From this time, one should deduct the time needed

to get to the place of the mission. This time varies

depending on the distance to the mission area from

the launch site. Taking into account the speed

typical for this class of drones, it should be

assumed that for a mission at a distance of approx.

1 - 1.5 km from the launch site, the effective time

for its execution at the site will vary between 10 -

15 minutes. The above calculation does not take

into account the influence of wind. Considering

that the pilot must allocate some time to find out in

the place where the task is to be performed, we can

see that this type of drones can only be used in

missions aimed at confirming information (e.g.

taking a photo of a signal buoy), and not obtaining

it (searching).

− Meteorological limitations covering both wind and

weather phenomena. Wind and weather affect all

aircrafts, however, commercial drones require

near-perfect weather conditions for take-off, flight

and landing, i.e. wind of 3-5 m/s , i.e. 2 or 3

degrees in the Beaufort scale.

− Design limitations. Commercial drones are not

designed to be used on board ships. It manifests

itself in several areas, the most important of which

is the control logic. In this logic, the place (Home

Position) to which the drone is to return in case of

loss of communication is automatically

programmed (Return To Home). The difference is

that the ship is moving, while the drone control

logic usually does not take this into account. In the

worst situation, the drone may return to a place

where the ship is not present. If we add that this

happens when the drone battery is low, the result

will be the loss of the drone.

Technical requirements for ships other than aircraft

carriers cooperating with helicopters have been

specified, inter alia, in NATO publications, e.g. MPP-

02, VOLUME AND HELICOPTER OPERATIONS

FROM SHIPS OTHER THAN AIRCRAFT CARRIERS

151

(HOSTAC), as well as in the Polish defense standard

NO-19-A206: 2009 "Ships and auxiliary naval vessels.

Ship aviation infrastructure. Requirements".

Figure 8. Part of the protection elements for the Skeldar

drone. Please note that drones with internal combustion

engines will require a fuel storage infrastructure with fire,

explosion protection devices, etc. Source:

https://umsskeldar.aero

4.8 Infrastructure requirement depending on drone

operating conditions

Adapting the requirements of the defense standard to

the use of UAVs should not be difficult. In accordance

with the provisions of the standard, it is possible to

clearly define the capabilities of the host ship to

conduct air operations, specifying the level and class

of possible air operations. According to the defense

standard, three levels of the ship's aviation

infrastructure have been established, defining the

possibilities of helicopter operations depending on the

environmental conditions. We can apply a similar

criterion to UAV.

− Level I means the ability to conduct flight

operations in night conditions, without visibility.

− Level II stipulates that the ship's equipment is

adapted to the performance of air operations both

during the day and at night, in conditions for

flights with visibility.

− Level III means that it is possible to perform flight

operations in daylight conditions only with

visibility.

4.9 Helicopter Operation Classes

At each helicopter operation level, there are seven

classes of helicopter operations.

− Class 1 means that the ship has a landing surface

and ground handling equipment and aircraft

maintenance equipment.

− Class 2 means that the ship has a landing surface

and ground handling equipment and maintenance

equipment for selected aircrafts only.

− Class 3 means that the ship has a landing surface

and the on-board service and maintenance of the

aircraft equipment is not available.

− Class 4 and 5 means that the ship has a surface for

carrying cargo suspended from the outer hook of

the aircraft and it is dependent on the safe height

of obstacles for the helicopter rotor and the safe

distance to the hull and landing gear of the

helicopter.

− Class 6 means that the ship is equipped for

refueling operations by a hovering helicopter.

− Class 7 means that the ship is equipped to carry

people and light loads to the board of the

helicopter and vice versa using the helicopter's on-

board winch.

From the above-mentioned classes, in the case of

air operations with the use of UAVs, we can directly

adapt classes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

In order to describe the ship's aviation

infrastructure for cooperation with aircraft, the

equipment and fittings have been classified into the

infrastructure branches. There are ten branches in the

ship's aviation infrastructure (OIL).

Compliance with the requirements of the defense

standard by the host ship (aircraft carrier) is

confirmed by the issue of a Certificate of Compliance

of the Naval Aviation Infrastructure with the Defense

Standard by an independent certifying body

(classification society). The certificate is issued for a

period of five years and remains valid subject to

annual inspections. As part of the inspections, the

technical condition of the ship's systems, devices and

equipment is assessed. The completeness of the

equipment and the validity of certificates are checked.

Compliance with the requirements of NO-19-A206:

2009 contributes to increasing the safety of joint

operations of ships and aircraft and may constitute the

basis for determining the requirements for the ship's

aviation infrastructure in cooperation with unmanned

aerial vehicles.

5 CERTIFICATION OF UNMANNED AERIAL

VEHICLES

The Classification Society, allowing the use of the

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, will require a Product

Type Approval from the interested party. To obtain a

given document, it will be necessary to submit to PRS:

− material / product documentation;

− confirmation that the product manufacturer has an

Approval Certificate;

− confirmation that material manufacturer has an

Approval Certificate;

− technical conditions are to be fulfilled, documents

relating to the material shall be agreed with PRS.

Requirements for the commencement of

supervision over a product or material in production

must be met, in the case of UAV certification, the

below factors shall be considered:

− fail safe function - procedure for dealing with

dangerous events, e.g. low battery / fuel level, loss

of GNSS signal, loss of communication with the

control station;

− determination of e the weather minima, mainly

wind, but also aspects such as magnetic

interference from the sun, the so-called Kp index

affecting compass and GNSS navigation;

− determination of the degree of resistance to water /

moisture;

152

− definition of the time and scope of inspections and

replacement of electromechanical parts (servos /

motors) in the context of wear in salinity

conditions - long-term tests should be performed;

− verification of long-term flight capability - tests

should be performed;

− determination of mechanical strength - gusty sea

weather may have a negative effect in the long-

term use;

− checking the stability of electrical and mechanical

connections - plugs / sockets, screw connections;

− flight preparation procedures, periodic checking of

parameters during the flight and the so-called

post-flight "minor inspection" - sending the results

to PRS.

The Classification Society completes information

and performs test and research programs - if

applicable, or agrees them with the manufacturer, on

the basis of the presented documentation that should

be delivered.

6 CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT OF UNMANNED

AERIAL VEHICLES

On 1 July, 2019, the European Commission published

the Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2019/945

on unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) and on third-

country operators of unmanned aircraft systems.

Regulation 2019/945 regulates matters related to the

introduction of UAS on the market and the

requirements that must be met by designers,

manufacturers, importers and distributors in order to

obtain conformity markings and in terms of safety and

interest in its competitiveness.

The second published document is the

Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/947

of May 24, 2019 on the rules and procedures for the

operation of unmanned aircraft by pilots and

operators, specifying the categories of use and the

requirements for their use.

These are:

− Open category - the UAS belongs to one of the

classes set out in Delegated Regulation (EU)

2019/945. Operations not requiring approval /

authorization, drones weighing less than 25 kg and

flights up to height above the take-off point limited

to 120 m, where the risk to third parties is close to

zero. This category includes 3 additional flight

subcategories: A1, A2 and A3.

− Special category - operations performed with a

statement of compliance with standard scenarios

or requiring authorization from the competent

authority due to the expected higher risk for

outsiders compared to the open category. The

authorization may refer to both a single operation

and a group of operations.

− Certified category - includes operations that

require UAS certification under Regulation (EU)

2019/945 and operator certification and, if

applicable, obtaining a license by a UAV pilot. The

Certified category includes high-risk operations

for third parties - comparable to the risk of flying

with manned aircraft.

Both of the regulations 2019/945 and 2019/947

define the classes of unmanned aerial vehicles and the

categories of their use.

Regulation 2019/945 sets out the requirements for

the design and production of UAVs. It also deals with

UAV commercialization requirements for the open

category in Chapter II, including systems or

accessories that they must have. Chapter III applies to

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) for a special

category and certified category, specifying its

requirements for design, production, maintenance

and use as intended. Chapter IV concerns operations

performed by operators from third countries outside

the territory of the European Union.

One of the most important parts of Regulation

2019/945 is Annex I, which establishes the UAS

classes. Depending on the maximum take-off weight,

the following classes are established:

− Class C0 with the maximum take-off weight of the

drone to 0.25 kg and the maximum flight speed

below 19 m / s with the limitation of the maximum

flight altitude to 120 m. Class C0 drones can fly in

all subcategories of the Open Category.

− Class C1 with a maximum increase of the take-off

weight of the drone to 0.9 kg, or those which, in

case of a collision with a human, generate kinetic

energy lower than 80 J. Maximum flight speed and

height limitation are the same as in class C0. Class

C1 drones can also fly in all subcategories of Open

Category.

− Class C2 with a maximum take-off weight of the

drone to 4 kg, which have a free flight mode

activated from the apparatus and limited to a

speed of less than 3 m/s horizontally, with a height

limitation also to 120 m. C2 class drones can fly in

subcategories A2 (in close proximity to people,

from 5 m to 30 m) and A3 (away from people)

Open Category.

− Class C3 with a maximum take-off weight of the

drone up to 25 kg, which can fly in various

automatic modes and have a flight altitude

limitation of 120 m. C3 class drones are approved

only for subcategory A3 (far from people) of the

Open Category.

− Class C4 with a maximum increase in the take-off

weight of the drone to 25 kg without automatic

modes, except for standard flight stabilization.

Each class has a number of requirements for its

production and obtaining the CE mark, necessary for

approval in the European Union. It is worth to pay

attention to the following requirements:

− The maximum achievable height at the starting

point is limited to 120 m above the ground. If the

altitude can be selected by the pilot, the system

must have an altitude reading at all times in order

not to exceed the limit mentioned above.

− A direct identification system that class C1 aircraft

should have. The system must allow for the entire

duration of the flight an unambiguous periodic

emission identifying a given UAV in real time

using an open and documented transmission

protocol, including a unique registration number

and operator data.

− UAV class C1 or higher should be able to be

equipped with the function of limited access to

specific areas or regions of the airspace. In

153

addition, the UAV pilot should receive a clear

signal when the system algorithm blocks entry into

a given area or region of the airspace

− UAV should be provided in operating instructions,

which should be used from class C1.

In the case of an open and certified category, the

manufacturer has to perform a UAS conformity

assessment under one of the modules:

− module A - Internal production control,

− module B - EU-type examination together with

module

− C - Conformity to type based on internal

production control or

− module H - Full quality assurance.

In the case of modules B and H, the conformity

assessment requires the participation of a notified

body, which after a successful assessment process

issues a certificate for module B for a period of five

years, and for module H for a period of one year.

Module A may be used by the manufacturer provided

that he has applied the harmonized standards,

published in the Official Journal of the European

Union, for all requirements for which such standards

exist in relation to class C0 and C4 UAVs and

elements used for unambiguous remote identification.

However, taking into account the lack of publication

of harmonized standards to Regulation 2019/945,

manufacturers will have to use modules, where it is a

prerequisite for conformity assessment to be carried

out by notified bodies.

Taking into account the distant perspective of the

publication of harmonized standards, manufacturers

will have to use modules requiring the participation

of notified bodies.

There are currently few safety standards that can

be applied to UAVs. However, this is about to change,

and intensive work is currently underway to develop

requirements.

Basically, all drone components, such as batteries,

MEMS and other sensors are based on International

Standards developed by IEC Committees:

− IEC / TC 47 Semiconductor devices and IEC / SC

47F Micro electromechanical systems. These

Committees are responsible for the preparation of

International Standards for semiconductor devices

used in sensors and MEMS necessary for safe

flights of drones,

− IEC / TC 2 Rotating machinery - prepares

International Standards covering the specification

of rotating machines,

− IEC / TC 91 Electronic assembly technology - is

responsible for standards for electronics assembly

technology and its components,

− IEC / SC 21A Secondary cells and batteries

containing alkaline or other non-acid electrolytes

develops standards for batteries used in mobile

applications, but also for high capacity lithium

cells and batteries.

The transitional provisions of the new drone law

are in force from 31/12/2020 to 01/01/2023. According

to the EU Commission Implementing Regulations

2019/945 and 2019/947, drones distributed in the EU

must meet certain standards (assigned classes) and

have the CE marking. In accordance with the decision

of EASA (European Union Aviation Safety Agency), it

will be possible to certify drones placed on the market

before 01/01/2023 (before the entry into force of the

target regulations).

7 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION

The Convention on International Civil Aviation

(known as the Chicago Convention) was drawn up on

December 7, 1944. This Convention regulates matters

in the field of aviation law and covers civil aircraft. On

its basis, unmanned aviation regulations are

established. The new EU legal regulations that enter

into force on December 31, 2020 require the

registration of drone operators and the use of certified

devices only. Legal regulations apply to drones

weighing up to 25 kg with the possibility of flying up

to 120 m.

A major problem accompanying rapid

technological leaps is the lack of appropriate legal

regulations regarding liability for damage related to

the use of UAVs. When operating the drone in

international waters, there is a risk of damage and loss

of an expensive device. In the worst case, it can lead to

casualties caused by a drone falling on board and its

consequences. Societies need time to adapt to the

challenges of modern technology. We can say that

UAVs have proved their usefulness and will continue

to develop.

REFERENCES

1. Wolejsza, P., Kulbiej, E.: Analysis of Possibilities How

Collision between Kraslava and Atlantic Lady Could

Have Been Avoided. In: 2018 Baltic Geodetic Congress

(BGC Geomatics). pp. 42–45 (2018).

https://doi.org/10.1109/BGC-Geomatics.2018.00014.

2. The autonomous navigation system tested in

quasi-real condition,

https://youtu.be/bvkdpnw_ypk, last accessed

2021/02/28.

154

3. https://www.wilhelmsen.com/ships-agency/

maritime-drone-delivery/, Last accessed

2021/02/27.

4. https://smartmaritimenetwork.com/2020/04/29/

first-commercial-long-range-drone-delivery-to-

vessel-completed-in-singapore/, Last accessed

2021/02/27.

5. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/f-

drones-completes-world-s-first-nighttime-drone-

delivery-to-a-ship, Last accessed 2021/02/27.

6. https://www.port.gdynia.pl/pl/wydarzenia/

aktualnosci/1716-dron-zwiekszy-bezpieczenstwo-

w-porcie-gdynia, Last accessed 2021/02/27.

7. https://marinetechnology.pl/en/news/hydrodron-

during-maneuvers-at-the-port-of-gdynia/, Last

accessed 2021/02/28.

8. http://www.avalproject.pl, Last accessed

2021/02/28.

9. https://www.ilawashiphandling.com.pl/

about.html, Last accessed 2021/02/28.

10. http://navdec.com/en/, Last accessed 2021/02/28.