425
1 INTRODUCTION
Duringtheresearchconductedintheyears2009‐2010
intheNordaustlandetandSouthernSvalbardregions
by means of a multi‐beam echosounder on board
vesselʺHoryzont IIʺ (Moskalik et al. 2012, Pastusiak
2011, 2012, Pohjola et al. 2011), the occurrence of
interference of the recorded signals of
a multi‐beam
echosounder was noticed. This happened mostly in
front of the mouth of the main water outflow from
individual glaciers to the sea. This disturbance
consistedinincorrectindicationofspatialdistribution
ofthedepthalongthesingleandsubsequentbeamsof
themulti‐beamechosounder.Sometimesa
seriesof
subsequent pings had a random distribution or the
bottomimagedisappearedcompletely.
Purposeoftheresearchwasdetectionofthecauses
of disturbances, determining the extent of the
phenomenon, determining the impact of the
phenomenon on safety of navigation and finally
proposingpreventive measures.In ordertodiscover
the
causesofthephenomenon,itwasdecidedtocarry
out hydrological and hydrographic measurements
near the terminus of the Hans Glacier (Hansbreen).
The glacier is located in the southern part of
Spitsbergen in the Hornsund fjord 77° 00’ N (Fig.1)
and has a very high calving intensity. The calving
intensity
oftheHansGlacierismuchhigherthanfor
other glaciers in the Hornsund fjord. The Hans
Glacier is located closest to the mouth of the
Hornsund fjord into the Atlantic Ocean. The
southwestcoastofSpitsbergenis surroundedby the
warm waters of the West‐Spitsbergen Current
(Arntsenetal.
2019,Promińskaetal.2018).Hence,it
Hydrology of Tidal Waters at the Glacier Terminus and
their Impact on Hydrographical Surveys and Navigation
Safety
T.Pastusiak
GdyniaMaritimeUniversity,Gdynia,Poland
ABSTRACT:Thedataanalysedinthepaperarerelatedtothehydrologyoftidalwatersatatidewaterglacier
terminus. Setof data was collectedin the wide spanof time from 2009till2015 in the Nordaustlandet and
SouthwestSpitsbergennearvarioustidalglaciersterminus.
Thedataarerelatedtotidalphenomenon,calving
glacier,driftingice,hydrologyofbrackishwaterfromiceofglacialoriginandtheirsconsequencesonsafetyof
navi‐gation.Thus,resultsofanalysisof hydrologicaldata mayserve forimprovement ofsafetyof maritime
transportinpolarregionsonhighlatitudes
invicinityoftidewaterglaciers.
Theresearchworkwaspartofthereconnaissanceofhydrologicalandhydrographicconditionsfortheneedsof
other studies. Measurements were taken at the Kamavika inlet leading from the Hans Glacier to‐wards
Hornsund fjord (Southern Svalbard). Based on above data, the causes of disturbances and
errors of
hydrographicmeasurementsthatmayoccurinareaofoccurrenceofbrackishwaterlayerandtheirinfluenceon
errorsofdigitalinformationdisplayedinECDISsystemsaswellaspredictionoficeconditionsandsafetyof
watercraftsinvicinityofglacierterminusandonanchorageweredescribed.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 14
Number 2
June 2020
DOI:10.12716/1001.14.02.21
426
was expected that the most intense impact of warm
watersoftheWest‐SpitsbergenCurrentoccursatthe
mouthofthefjordintotheocean.So,itshouldallow
betteridentificationofthephenomenon.
2 PRELIMINARYASSUMPTIONSAND
RESEARCHMETHOD
Itwasdecidedtotakemeasurementsofwatersalinity
and
temperature in the horizontal plane (on the sea
surface) during high and low water. The hydrology
study was supplemented by a few temperature and
salinityprofilesalongtheaxisoftheKamavikainlet
and the recording of a single‐beam echosounder
imagewithindividualpings.Itwasexpectedthatthe
sonar and individual ping image recording would
indicate the causes and location of the sonar signal
interference.
Important fromthepoint of view of the research
objective was the proper selection of points and
measurement lines. Initial observations of the
surveyed region showed four characteristic
boundaries of the examined region located
transversely to the axis of the inlet at Hans Glacier
terminus (Kamavika). The first was the external
borderoftheinlet,atwhichtheshorelinechangedits
direction by nearly 90 ° (Fig. 1). The second
characteristicplaceslightlydistantfromtheshoreline
was the outer end of the glacier
on land. Five
measuring points were determined on the line
connectingthese ends ofthe Hans Glacier. Thetotal
length of the measuring line was 1.415 meters. The
third characteristic place was the end of the beach
(shoreline) at the glacier wall when high water
occurred. The next five measurement points
were
determined on the line connecting the ends of the
beach. The total length of the measuring line was
1.453meters. The fourthcharacteristicplace wasthe
borderoftheglacierterminus,whichwasreachedby
the beach uncovered during low water. There is no
measuringpointbetweentheinner
line(4threference
line)andthe glacierterminusduetointense calving
and retention of concentrated ice debris with
individualdimensionsupto30meterslongandupto
4metershighabovethewatersurface.
Additionally,6measuringpointsweredetermined
alongtheaxis(centralline)oftheHansGlacier
inlet
fromthelineconnectingtheouterbordersoftheinlet
(1streferenceline)totheinnerlineoftheglacier(4th
referenceline).Thetotallengthofthemeasuringline
was 1.462 meters. The nearest measuring point was
located about 300 meters in front of the glacier
terminus. Each
of these lines had one point in
commonwiththecenterline.ThelengthofKamavika
inletfromtheglacierterminus(4thtransverseline)to
the mouth of the inlet to the Hornsund fjord (1st
transverse line) measured along its axis was 2.040
meters.
Three measuring points for the CTD probe
were
determinedontheaxisoftheHansGlacierinlet.They
were determined at the outer point of the axis
(referencepointNo.13)andoneateachintersection
of the axis with reference transverse lines (reference
pointsNo.3and8).Themeasureddepthattheouter
point(No.
13)waslimitedbythedepthofthebasin
andattheothertwopoints(No.3and8)waslimited
bythelengthoftheCTDprobeline.
Figure1.Distributionofmeasuringpointsondepthprofiles:
∙∙∙‐externalglaciertransverse line,‐‐‐‐internal glacier
transverse line,∙‐∙‐post‐glacial valley axis;
̶̶̶ ̶ ̶‐
shoreline,
˪˪˪‐theHansGlacierterminus,thebaseofwhich
isalwaysimmersed.Compiledbyauthor.
The periods of high and low water available for
measurementpurposesweredeterminedonthebasis
ofcalculatingtheBritishAdmiraltytidetable(UKHO
2015) for the port connected toʺIsbjornhamnaʺ and
time restrictions related to hydrological and
meteorological conditions occurring in the research
area, time restrictions resulting from other
measurements
andthedurationofthestayofpersons
performing measurements and availability of
assistants in the region of Isbjornhamna. The
prevailing ice conditions in the inlet at the Hans
Glacier terminus were not a criterion for making
decisions aboutthe timing of measurements.Due to
the above time limitations, hydrological
measurements during the low water period were
made before the lowest water level and during the
highwaterperiodweremadeafterthehighestwater
time.
3 RESULTSOFMEASUREMENTS
Salinity and water temperature profiles were
compiled at three reference points located along the
axis of the Kamavika inlet at Low
Water time. The
salinity change graph (Fig. 2) shows a significant
increaseinthesalinitygradientwithincreasingdepth
atallthreereferencepointsfromtheseasurfacetoa
depthof1.1meter.Similarly,asignificantincreasein
theseawatertemperaturegradientoccursatallthree
referencepoints
fromtheseasurfacetoadepthof2.0
meters(Fig.3).Inbothdiagrams(Fig.2andFig.3)are
verysmallchangesofwatersalinityandtemperature
from 20 metersdepth and deeper. Slight increase of
water temperature and salinity is noted for external
reference point 13. Changes of
water temperature
427
were much more instable than changes of water
salinity.
Then, average salinity and water temperature
valuesforallverticalprofiles(Fig.2andFig.3)made
by the author in 2015 and average results for
measurements made in 2015 by Prominska et al.
(2017)werecompared.ProfilesmadebyProminska
et
al. (2017) concerned general direction along the
Hornsundfjordaxisandacrossthefjordbutfaraway
from any glacier terminus. Profiles made by the
author related to deep inside glacier inlet and very
close to glacier terminus. Average temperature at
glacier terminus inside glacier inlet in 2015 was
+1.80°C (by the author) and average temperature at
the axis of Hornsund fjord and far away from any
glacierterminus(Prominskaetal.2017)was+2.27°C.
Average salinity at glacier terminus inside glacier
inlet in 2015 was 31.57 (by the author) and average
salinity at the axis of Hornsund fjord and
far away
fromanyglacierterminus(Prominskaetal.2017)was
34.6. Comparison of these data indicates higher
influenceofcoldandfreshwaterfromcalvingglacier
on average parameters of brackish water in glacier
inlet (at glacier terminus) than at centerline of the
fjordfarawayfromanyglacier
terminus.
Figure2.Changesinwatersalinitywithdepthforselected
reference points in the axis of the Kamavika inlet at Low
WaterneartheterminusoftheHansGlacier(Hansbreen)on
20.09.2015.Compiledbyauthor.
Figure 3. Changes in water temperature with depth for
selectedreferencepointsintheaxisoftheKamavikainletat
Low Water near the terminus of the Hans Glacier
(Hansbreen)on20.09.2015.Compiledbyauthor.
The height of the brackish water layer (Tables 1
and 2) depended on the occurrence of a water zone
covered with ice from the calving glacier in the
vicinity of a given reference point (Fig. 4). On the
depthchartsrecordedbyasingle‐beamechosounder
onlongitudinalandtransverseprofiles
totheaxisof
theKamavikainlet,itwasobservedthatthesmallest
heights of the layer of brackish water occurred near
theinletcoastline(smalldepthsofthebasin)andthe
largestalongtheinlet centerline(largedepthsof the
basin).
The direction and speed of tidal stream at
the
beginningandendofebbtidewereveryconvergent.
The average direction of ebb stream was 206 °. The
average speed of ebb stream was 0.16 m/s. The
median ebb stream movement coincided with the
meanvaluesandwas195°and0.13m/s,respectively.
Theseresultsareconsistentwith
theworkofArntsen
etal.(2019),whereaveragespeedofebbstreamalong
thelargest depths oversill of Brepollenin2013 was
0.02 m/s in the period 2010/2011 (0.01 m/s in the
period 2013/2014. Same time maximal ebb stream
speed(Arntsenetal.2019),was0.27m/sin
2010/2011
and0.37m/sin2013/2014.
If themovement of water inaccordance with the
median speed is assumed, then the ice which has
calvedfromtheglacieratthemomentofHighWater
(4thtransverseline)andfreshwaterofglacialorigin
willbeoutsidetheKamavikainlet(1sttransverse
line)
after4hoursand20minutes.Incaseicedebrismoves
with same speed after passing entrance to the
Kamavikainlettowardsopensea,itreachescoastline
atPolishPolarStationinHornsundfjordafternext3
hours. In practice, there are strong winds towards
opensea(AtlanticOcean)
anddriftoficeisrelatively
much faster. It means ice calved from Hans Glacier
terminus at High Water time is able to reach Polish
Polar Station coastline during 5‐7 hours. This is
importantconclusionforpredictionof iceconditions
at the coastline for anchoring, cargo operations,
supplies and people
transfer from vessel to Polish
Polar Station and vice versa. Prediction of ice
conditionsduringplannedtransferoperationsshould
be based on quantity (low or high) of debris from
calvedHansGlacieratHighWatertimeandquantity
ofdebrispressedbythewindtothewesterncoastof
Kamavika
inlet.
Ice debris originated from calving glacier is
maximally compacted from 1‐2 hours before High
Watertill1‐2hoursafterHighWater(Pastusiak2018,
2020). It was experienced during surveys at Hans
Glacier terminus in 2015, that the assessment of
amountofcompactedicedebrisfromcalvingglacier
during
High Water time at glacier terminus allows
predictionofamountofdriftingicewhichwillreach
coastlineatthePolishPolarStationinHornsundfjord
atthesametime.Itshouldbementionedthatalarge
amountof drifting compactedicecan prevent trans‐
shipment operations at coastline. Thus, it
will be
possibletodetermineconditionsforstayingofvessel
at anchorage and conditions for carrying out trans‐
shipment operations at the side of the vessel and at
coastline.
428
Figure4.Theheightofthewaterlayerandthedepth
ofthebasinontheprofileregisteredwithasingle
beamechosounder.Compiledbyauthor.
From the above results it was stated that any
watercraft (research vessel, yacht, boat, pontoon)
should not approach the coastline of unsurveyed or
poorlysurveyed
bathymetrywhereexistsdriftingice
debrisfromcalvingglacier3hoursbeforeHighWater
at glacier terminus. The increasing concentration of
ice and compactness of ice in the period from 1‐2
hours before High Water till 1‐2 hours after High
Water at glacier terminus can beset and nip
a
watercraftinsuchice.Theeventisdangerousbecause
an immobilized watercraft can drift along with the
surrounding ice debris and be dragged to rocky
shoals, suffer damage of hull or machinery or even
sink (Pastusiak2018, 2020). A vessel that is beset or
nip in compacted ice in vicinity
of glacier terminus
maysufferdamage,collapseorevensinkasaresult
ofcalvedpieceofglacierorhighwavesorsurges.
Table1. Hydrological and surface water movement
parameters at reference points determined during Low
WaterinKamavikainletneartheterminusoftheHansbreen
Glacieron20.09.2015.Compiledbyauthor.
_______________________________________________
Reference Speedof Direction Salinityof Heightof
point tidal oftidal surface brackish
stream stream water waterlayer
[m/s] [°]layer[PSU] H
aver[m]
_______________________________________________
10.1195 30.40.3
20.3189 30.10.3
30.05 211 30.50.5
40.05 135 29.91
50.1283 29.60.9
60.15 307 30.30.6
70.1270 30.31.3
80.25 180 30.40.7
90.15 226 30.41
100.1110 30.91
12
0.15 258 30.40.4
130.2133 30.30.9
140.15 189 30.40.8
150.1193 28.50.8
_______________________________________________
Average 0.1214.9 30.20.7
_______________________________________________
Table2. Hydrological and surface water movement
parameters at reference points determined during High
WaterinKamavikainletneartheterminusoftheHansbreen
Glacieron25.09.2015.Compiledbyauthor.
_______________________________________________
Reference Speedof Direction Salinityof Heightof
point tidal oftidal surface brackish
stream stream water waterlayer
[m/s] [°]layer[PSU] H
aver[m]
_______________________________________________
10.24 180 29.90.5
2Nodata b/d 28.80.7
30.11 180 28.91.3
4Nodata Nodata 28.70.5
50.06 181 23.30.3
60.13 240 29.90.9
7Nodata Nodata 29.40.7
80.6250 30.41.3
90.05 224 28.00.4
10
0.26 223 25.80.6
120.15 197 29.11.4
13Nodata Nodata 29.4b/d
14Nodata Nodata 29.2b/d
15Nodata Nodata 29.1Nodata
_______________________________________________
Average 0.2209.4 28.60.8
_______________________________________________
Figure5. Direction and speed of surface tidal stream
determined at Low Water in Kamavika inlet near the
terminusoftheHansbreenGlacieron20.09.2015.Compiled
byauthor.
Figure 6. Direction and speed of surface tidal stream
determined at High Water in Kamavika inlet near the
terminusoftheHansbreenGlacieron25.09.2015.Compiled
byauthor.
429
Thedirectionofthetidalstream(Figures5and6)
atthebeginningandendoftheebbtide(outflow)was
predominantlyparallelto thelongitudinal centerline
of the Kamavika inlet along its entire length with a
tendencytodivergetowardsgreaterdepthsthatlead
mostlyatacenterlineof
theKamavikainlet(Janiaet
al.2016).ThisisconsistentwiththeresultsofArntsen
etal.(2019),wheregeneraldirection offloodstream
and ebb stream was found consistent with the
direction along the largest depths over sill of
Brepollen.
4 THEREASONSOFDISTURBANCESAND
ERRORSOFHYDROGRAPHIC
MEASUREMENTS
First, depth measurement was performed, a
traditional image of the echosounder and
georeferenced depths (pings) were automatically
recordedonacrosssectionperpendiculartotheaxis
of the Kamavika inlet near the 1st transversal line
(Fig.1).Whenperformingmeasurementsonpontoon,
asingle‐beamechosounderworkedonfrequency200
kHz. The closer it was to the mouth of Kamavika
inlet, the more depth errors the sonar showed
(electronic digital depth indicator). Recorded pings
showed ever smaller depths untildepth reached a
valuelessthanonemeterattheaxisofthecove(Fig.
7). Then the echosounder stopped visualizing
the
detected depths and has reset itself (Fig. 7). After
restarting the echosounder, the dialog box reported
necessity of performing the test due to the
echosounder system failure. Echosounder software
couldnotautomaticallyeliminatemisinterpretationof
echoes returning from the depths of the water. This
echosounder started to function properly only
after
thepontoonleftthedriftingicefieldfromthecalving
glacier and its surrounding water. Further
measurements of the longitudinal and transverse
profilesinKamavikainletweremadeatanoperating
frequencyof83kHz.So,whenpontoonwasmoving
along the same test route, the echosounder worked
incorrectly
at200kHzand correctlyat 83kHz. Ata
lower frequency, the echosounder showed received
echoes from the water depth correctly and recorded
georeferenced depths (pings) correctly. Further
measurementsoflongitudinalandtransverseprofiles
intheKamavikainletweremadeon83kHzworking
frequency.Nointerferencewasfound.
Figure 7. Depth discrepancy indications of automatically
recordedgeoreferencedindividualdepths(pings)relativeto
the recorded echo image on the echosounder screen.
Compiledbyauthor.
Next, were analyzed the depth measurements,
which were made using a multi‐beam echosounder
on board vesselʺHoryzont IIʺ on 22.09.2015.
Transducersofthismulti‐beamechosounderworked
at180kHz.Whenvesselwasnavigatingdeepintothe
Hornsundfjord,themulti‐beamechosoundershowed
alreadyincorrectdepthsonthetraverse
ofKamavika
inlet(Fig. 8). Inthecentralpartof the mouth ofthe
inlet echosounder suffered significant interference
andincompletemeasuringbeams.
The results of multi‐beam echosounder
measurementsinthevicinityofglaciersterminusin
the Brepollen area (in 2010), right at the glaciers
terminus, when reached glaciers
walls, also showed
distortions of the beam shape (transverse profile) in
someplaces.Thephenomenonoccurrednearglaciers
only. It canbe explainedthat thedisturbance of the
bottomline shape(beam) resultedfromthe research
vesselʹs entry into the water outflow zone of glacial
origin.Thisbrackishwaterwas
ofhighvariabilityin
temperature and salinity same like found at
Kamavikainlet(Figures2and3).
Figure8.Multi‐beamechosounderprofilesalongthefront
of Kamavika inlet in the middle of the ebb tide on
22.09.2015.Compiledbyauthor.
430
Mostprobablereasonofincorrectsoundingswere
measurements of multi‐beam echosounder, which
were closest to glaciers. They presented incorrect
shape of sea bottom in some places. Assumed these
incorrect measurements of shape ofseabed
happenedwhenvesselenteredzoneofwaterflowing
outoftheglacier.Thisbrackishwater
wasofvariable
temperatureandsalinity.
Depth measurements made with a multi‐beam
echosounder in subsequent stages when passing
along mouth of the Kamavika inlet are presented
Figure8.Themulti‐beamechosounderworkedat180
kHz. While moving vessel alongthe mouth of the
inlet,theechosounderindicatedfirst
incorrectdepths
(Figure 8a, d). Then, in the inlet axis, echosounder
indicated incorrect sea bottom shape (Figure 8b, d).
After passing the inlet, multi‐beam echosounder
presentedshapeofseabottomcorrectly(Figure8c,d).
Based on the two observed phenomena of
incorrect indication of digital depths of two devices
operating
at a similar frequency of transducers, the
geographical distribution of this phenomenon was
determined(Fig.9).
Figure9. Identified area of incorrect digital readings of
echosounders during ebb tide at Hans Glacier inlet;‐‐‐
edge of incorrect digital data on 20.09.2015 during survey
on single‐beam echosounder at 200 kHz,∙∙∙area of
incorrectdigitaldataon22.09.2015duringsurveyonmulti‐
beamechosounderat180kHz.Compiledby
author.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The data analysed in this paper are related to the
hydrologyoftidalwatersataglacierterminus.Setof
datawascollectedinthewidespanoftimefrom2009
till 2015 in the Nordaustlandet and Southwest
Spitsbergennearvarioustidalglaciersterminus.The
data are related to
tidal phenomenon and its
consequencesonsafetyofnavigation.Thus,resultsof
analysis of hydrological data may serve for
improvementofsafetyofmaritimetransportinpolar
regionsonhighlatitudes.
The direction and speed of tidal stream at the
beginningandendofebbtidewereveryconvergent.
Average
directionofebbtidestreamwassetalongthe
maximaldepthsorslighttowardsmaximaldepthsof
thebasin.Theaveragespeedofebbtidestreamatthe
Hornsund fjord was about 0.01 m/s. Same time
averagespeedatthebeginningandendofebbtideat
theglacierterminusKamavika
inletwas0.16m/sand
maximalspeedattheHornsundfjordwasabout0.37
m/s.
TheicewhichhascalvedfromtheHandGlacierat
themomentofHighWaterandfreshwaterofglacial
origin which is moving with the median ebb tide
speedwillbeoutsidetheKamavika
inletafter4hours
and20minutesandthere,underadditionalinfluence
of the wind blowing towards open sea, may reach
coastline at Polish Polar Station in Hornsund fjord
after next 3 hours. Taking into consideration the
variationofthewindspeedtheicecalvedfromHans
GlacierterminusatHigh
Watertimeisabletoreach
PolishPolarStationcoastlinein5‐7hours.Thisallows
predictionofice conditionsatthe coastlineatPolish
PolarStationforwatercraftanchoringaswellasfor
equipment, supplies and people transfer. Prediction
of ice conditions should be based on quantity of
debrisfromcalvedHansGlacieratHighWatertime
and quantity of debris pressed by the wind to the
westerncoastofKamavikainlet.Thus,itispossibleto
determine conditions for staying of vessel at
anchorage and conditions for carrying out trans‐
shipment operations at the side of a vessel
and at
shoreline.
Any watercraft (research vessel, yacht, boat,
pontoon) should not approach the coastline of
unsurveyed or poorly surveyed bathymetry where
existsdriftingicedebrisfromcalvingglacier3hours
beforeHighWateratglacierterminus.Theincreasing
concentration of ice and compactness of ice in the
period from
1‐2 hours before High Water till 1‐2
hoursafterHighWateratglacierterminuscanbeset
and nip a watercraft in such ice. This is dangerous
because an immobilized watercraft can drift along
with the surrounding ice debris and be dragged to
rocky shoals, suffer damage of hull, machinery
or
scientificequipmentorevensink.Awatercraftthatis
beset or nip in compacted ice in vicinity of glacier
terminusmaysufferdamage,collapseorevensinkas
aresultofcontactwithcalvedpieceofglacierordue
toactionofhighwavesorsurges.
Thedirectionof
thetidalstreamatthebeginning
and end of the ebb tide (outflow) is predominantly
parallel to the longitudinal centerline of the glacier
inlet along entire sea bed length with a tendency to
diverge towards greater depths that are located
mostlyatacenterlineoftheinlet.
The speed of the
ebb current allowed ice to drift
fromthecalving glacier along with the surrounding
brackish water to at least the border of the area of
incorrectdigital depthreadings visibleinthe mouth
of the glacier inlet. Incorrect, misleading depth
readings of echosounder that is operating at
frequency of 200
kHz and same time correct depth
readingsofechosounderoperatingatfrequencyof83
kHz‐can be usedfor detection of outflow of water
from the glacier and demonstrate 3D range of the
phenomenon. Incorrect indications of single‐beam
431
navigational echosounder may refer to the edge of
water layers with different salinity or temperature
and indicate smaller depths than they actually are
(dangerous for navigation‐may mislead the
navigator, in case depth serve for vessel position
verification). Incorrect single‐beam echosounder
digital indication may refer to the second or
third
echo (dangerous for navigation‐indicates greater
depthsthentheyare).
The navigator (Officer On Watch) should often
compare the depth digital indications on the ECDIS
screen with the image on echosounder screen to
detect incorrect indications. Manual change of
settings of single‐beam echosounder enables
elimination of incorrect depth
indications. The
navigator(OfficerOnWatch)shouldbe vigilantand
recognize incorrect image of sea bottom shape of
multi‐beam echosounder pings. Tis case explain
importance of human factor in safety of maritime
transport.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks the Institute of Geophysics, Polish
AcademyofSciencesinWarsaw,forfinancingtheauthor’s
travelonboard vessel Horyzont IIin September 2015and
Gdynia Maritime University, for providing survey
equipmentbeingonboardtheresearchvesselHoryzontII.
REFERENCES
Arntsen, M., Sundfjord,A., Skogseth,R., Błaszczyk, M., &
Promińska,A.2019.Inflowofwarmwatertotheinner
Hornsund fjord, Svalbard: Exchange mechanisms and
influenceonlocalseaicecoverandglacierfrontmelting.
Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 124, 1915–
1931.https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JC014315
Jania,J.,Blaszczyk,M.,Cieply,
M.,Grabiec,M.,Budzik,T.,
Ignatiuk,D.,Uszczyk,A.,Tymrowska,T.,Majchrowska,
E., Prominska, A., Walczowski, W., Pastusiak, T.,
Petlicki, M., Puczko, D. 2016. Seasonal and short term
fluctuations of iceberg flux from Hans Glacier
Spitsbergen, Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 18,
EGU2016‐10012, 2016, European Geosciences Union,
EGU General Assembly 2016,
Copernicus Meetings,
Vienna,Austria19.04.2016
Moskalik, M., Pastusiak, T., Tęgowski, J. 2012. Multibeam
bathymetry and slopes stability of Isvika Bay,
Murchisonfjorden, Nordaustlandet
(http://www.tandfonline.com/
eprint/JBcDimhcjPbuUPA53iFy/full)ʺ, Marine Geodesy,
2012–No35(4):389‐398.
Pastusiak, T. 2020. Voyages on the Northern Sea Route,
SpringerInternationalPublishing,1sted.2020,XXXVIII,
PrintISBN978‐3‐030‐25489‐6:279
Pastusiak, T. 2018. Planning independenttransit voyages
of vessel without ice strengthening through the
Northern Sea Route [in Polish] (Planowanie
samodzielnych podróży tranzytowych statku bez
wzmocnień lodowych przez Północną Drogę Morską),
AkademiaMorska,Gdynia,ISBN:978‐83‐7421‐286‐1:
278
Pastusiak,T.2012.Ship’sNavigationalSafetyintheArctic
Unsurveyed Regions, TransNav, the International
Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea
Transportation, CRC Press,Londyn,Vol. 6, No. 2:209‐
214
Pastusiak, T. 2011. Echosonda wielowiązkowa jako
urządzenie zapewniające bezpieczeństwo nawigacji w
rejonach niezbadanych, Inżynieria
Morska i
Geotechnika,Nr4:271‐275
Pohjola,V.A.,Kankaanpää,P.,Moore,J.C.andPastusiak,T.
2011.TheInternationalPolarYearProject‘KINNVIKA’–
Arctic warming and impact research at 80° N.
GeografiskaAnnaler,SeriesA,PhysicalGeography,93,
201–208.DOI:10.1111/j.1468‐0459.2011.00436.x
Promińska, A., Cisek, M., Walczowski, W. 2017.
Kongsfjorden
and Hornsund hydrography —
comparativestudybasedonamultiyearsurveyinfjords
ofwestSpitsbergen.Oceanologia(2017)59,397‐412.
Promińska,A.,Falck,E.,Walczowski,W.,2018.Interannual
variabilityinhydrographyandwatermassdistribution
in Hornsund, an Arctic fjord in Svalbard. Polar
Research, 37:1, 1495546, DOI:
10.1080/17518369.2018.1495546
UKHO, 2015. United Kingdom Hydrographic Office,
Admiralty Tide Tables, Europe (excluding United
KingdomandIreland),MediterraneanSeaandAtlantic
Ocean,NP202,Volume2.
