471
1 INTRODUCTION
The maritime world achieved another milestone in
July 2018, when the schedule for transitioning
SOLAS‐class ships to Electronic Chart Display and
Information Systems (ECDIS) using Electronic
Navigational Charts (ENCs) was complete. This is a
great opportunity to summarize these several dozen
yearsofintenseworkofvisionaries,
enthusiasts,and
experts,whohavebroughttheideaofelectronicmaps
to the end, that is, to the full implementation and
replacementoftraditionalpaperchartsonships.Most
nationalHydrographicOffices(HOs)havefullsuites
of ENCs, and transitioned internal workflows to
maintain ENCs first, ensuring they are up
to date
with the latest information [Smith, 2018]. But is it
reallytrue?[Weintrit,2018].
In last thirty years information technology has
significantly changed the concept of navigation
mainly through the introduction of the latest
computers and communication capabilities that
facilitate communication with seagoing vessels
[Weintrit,2001,2009].Networkingshipowners,vessel
trafficservicecentres,riverinformationsystems,and
individual vessels in ocean, coastal, offshore and
inland navigation is carried out with the latest state
of‐the‐art technology in computers and efficient
communication network systems and e‐Navigation
[Patraikoetal.,2010;Hagen,2017].Officialelectronic
navigationalcharts(ENCs)arebased
ontherelevant
hydrographic officeʹs source data or official charts,
and are compiled, coded and regularly updated in
accordancewithinternationalstandards.Thevalueof
the electronic chart’s development is not in simply
imitatingthepapernauticalchart,butinprovidinga
dynamic display which successfully combines the
real‐time
location of the ship with radar/ARPA/AIS
returnsandchartinformation.Tomaintainthevisual
simplicity of this more complex display, the data
format, organization and type of chart features
shown,andthewaytheyappearonthescreen,must
reflect the relative importance of the information to
safe navigation. Unlike
the static paper chart, the
Clarification, Systematization and General Classification
of Electronic Chart Systems and Electronic Navigational
Charts Used in Marine Navigation. Part 1 - Electronic
Chart Systems
A.Weintrit
GdyniaMaritimeUniversity,Gdynia,Poland
PolandBranchoftheNauticalInstitute,UK
ABSTRACT:Inthepaper,theauthorattemptstoisolate,clarify,systematize,andclassifyvarioustypes,models
andkindsofelectronicchartsystems,operatingnowadaysontheshippingmarket,whichareaperfectexample
oftheuseofGIS(Geographic
InformationSystem)technologyinwidelycomprehendedmaritimeandinland
waterway applications,in particula rtriesto promote internationally standardized system ECDIS (Electronic
Chart Display and Information System), its RCDS mode (RasterChart Display System), as well as Warship
ECDIS(WECDIS),andInlandECDIS(I‐ECDIS).Inthepapertheauthorpresents
thegeneralclassificationof
electronicchartsystemstakingintoconsiderationthefollowingcriteria:internationalstandards,certificationby
classificationsociety,useddatabase,updatingsystemandcertificationbymaritimeadministration.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 12
Number 3
September 2018
DOI:10.12716/1001.12.03.05
472
electronicchartcanchangethedisplayandemphasis
ofsymbols,basedonactualreal‐timeeventsandthe
viewingscalechosen.Thecomputer‐basedalgorithms
ofthe electronicchartallowit toalways includethe
leastnumberofsymbolswhicharemostrelevanttoa
given situation and for a
specific user. This article
attempts to systematize and classify different types,
models and kinds of electronic chart systems which
exist on the market and are used in marine
navigation, their specificity, operational status,
significanceandtheroletheyplay.
2 ELECTRONICCHARTDISPLAYAND
INFORMATIONSYSTEM(ECDIS)
Thebasicnavigational
equipmentrequiredtoday on
boardashipdependsonthesizeoftheship,andthe
rules include provisions for backup system and
alternates. Regulation 19 of Chapter V of Safety of
LiveatSea(SOLAS)Conventionstates thatallships
(oninternationalvoyages)mustcarrychartssuitable
fortheintended
voyage,whichcanbe anECDIS,as
well as a navigation system receiver such as a GPS
[Hagen,2017;Weintrit,2015].
As goes with all cases, firstly, it is important to
identify the risks and not to show over‐reliance on
thisnewtechnology.Forthatpurpose,acloselook
to
the system itself is required. Industry stakeholders
have discussed a lot about the pros and cons of
paperless navigation concluding that ECDIS does
have an edge over the traditional paper chart
navigation[Edmonds,2007].
TheprimaryfunctionoftheECDISistocontribute
to safe navigation. ECDIS with adequate back
‐up
arrangementsmaybeacceptedascomplyingwiththe
up‐to‐date charts required by regulations V/19 and
V/27 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended.
ECDIS should be capable of displaying all chart
information necessary for safe and efficient
navigation originated by, and distributed on the
authority of, government
authorized hydrographic
offices. ECDIS should facilitate simple and reliable
updatingoftheelectronicnavigationalchart.
3 ELECTRONICCHARTSYSTEMECSVERSUS
ECDIS
Electronic navigation systems are maturely in use
across maritime sectors. But not all electronic chart
systemshavethesamecapabilities,orfunctioninthe
same way. The primary differences
between the
varioustypesofsystemprimaryrelate to:
formatandcontentsofthechartdata,
chartdisplay,
availablenavigationalfunctions,
connectionwithexternalsensors.
Basedonthesecriteria,therearethreebasictypes
ofsystems:
ElectronicChart Display and Information System
(ECDIS),
Electronic
ChartSystem(ECS),
RasterChartDisplaySystem(RCDS).
Thissection explainswhat these acronymsmean,
whatarethecapabilitiesandlimitationsofeachtype
of system, and what role they can play in a shipʹs
operation.MostlargeshipsuseECDISastheprimary
navigationtool.Commercialtugboats,ferries,
fishing
boats, high‐end recreational yachts, and high
sophisticated research and specialized vessels use
standalone or PC‐based navigation systems, often
with adva nced capabilities not available in ECDIS
systems. Electronic navigation is affordable and
availablethroughchartplottersandmobileappstoall
vesselsonthewater[Arts,2003].
Forships’navigatingofficers,mastersandpilotsto
make the very best decisions concerning the safe
navigationof avessel,theyneed qualitytools, good
procedures and training that addresses how to use
such tools within the context of making good
decisions.Usersneedtobecompetentandconfident
when using
information from navigation equipment
such as ECDIS, Radar, ARPA, AIS, and electronic
positionfixingsystemsGNSS,inordertousethemas
effectivetools.
Figure1.Generalclassificationof Electronic ChartSystemsECSaspiringtoachievetheIMOstatusof ECDIS (Electronic
ChartDisplayandInformationSystem)[Weintrit,2009]
473
3.1 InternationalStandards
The electronic chart system is a relatively new
technologythatprovidessignificantbenefitsinterms
of navigation safety and improved operational
efficiency.More thansimply a computerdisplay, an
electronic chart system is a real‐time navigation
systemthatintegratesavarietyofinformationthatis
displayed
and interpreted by the navigator. It is an
automated decision aid capable of continuously
determining a vessel’s position in relation to land,
charted objects, aids‐to‐navigation, and unseen
hazards. The electronic chart represents an entirely
newapproachtomaritimenavigation.Therearetwo
basic types of electronic chart systems.
Those that
complywiththe IMO requirementsfor SOLAS class
vessels, known as the Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS), and all other types of
systemswhichusenavigationalchartsindigitalform,
regarded generically as, Electronic Chart Systems
(ECS)[Weintrit,2009;Hecht,etal.,2017].
ECS cannot be the
legal equivalent of the paper
navigationalchart(sinceitdoesnotmeetalltheIMO,
IHO and IEC standards for ECDIS), is already in
widespread use around the world, and is
characterized by being physically smaller, less
sophisticated,andlessexpensivethanfullycompliant
ECDIS [Becker‐Heins, 2014]. ECS displays
different
types of chart data (vector or raster) provided by
hydrographic office, commercial manufacturer or
user.Itisintendedfortheuseinconjunction witha
current,updatedpaperchart.Itcannotfunctionasan
ECDIS system since it does not meet the IMO
standards for equipment which is a legal
substitute
forpapercharts.
3.2 ECDISTypeApproval
There are almost fifty ECDIS manufacturers on the
shippingmarket,manyofwhichoffermorethanone
model,andsomeofthekeyoperationalfeaturesdiffer
widely from one manufacturer to another.
Considerable variations in the way different
manufacturersdisplaynavigationsystems
havebeen
acauseforconcernforseveralyears,promptingcalls
fora defaultsettingacrossall models. The IMO’se‐
Navigation project aims to ensure seafarers are
providedwiththeinformationtheyneedforsafeand
efficient navigation, and this includes the
development of an “S mode” or standard mode
of
operation for navigation displays across all
manufacturers. The adoption of S‐Mode would
reducetheriskofconfusionwhenanavigatorisfaced
withasystemthattheyareunfamiliarwith[Patraiko,
etal.,2010;Hagen,2017].
Each ECDIS manufacturer should receive type
approvalcertificateforitselectronicchart
displayand
information system issued by the Classification
Society, e.g. DNV (Det Norske Veritas). In 1999,
Transasbecametheworldʹs firstcompanytoreceive
ECDIStypeapprovalforitsNavi‐Sailor2400system.
A relevant certificate resulted from a careful
verification procedure and confirmed the productʹs
full compliance with
all the necessary international
standards and regulations. Since then, this company
aswellasotherECDISproducershavemadeamajor
stepforwardinmaritimesoftwaredevelopmentwith
their a new‐generation electronic chart system
enhancedwithabroadarrayofprogressivefunctions.
Such ECDIS producers as Adveto, Consilium,
Danelec,
Furuno, Imtech, JRC, Kelvin Hughes,
Kongsberg, Maris, Martek, Naudeq, OSI, PC
Maritime, Raytheon, SAM Electronics, Seall, Simrad,
Sodena, Telko, Tokyo Keiki, Transas, Tresco, and
many, many others have pioneered the full
integration of chart, weather, tidal, UAIS and
Radar/ARPAdataonasingleelectronicchartscreen.
TheofficialDNV recognitionof
theECDISonboard
systemopenednewopportunitiesforpotentialusers
of ECDIS already introduced to the marine market.
The extended functionality of ECDIS includes
integratedweatherforecasting,multiplechartdisplay
and user‐selectable screen layout; all major chart
formats;advancedroute planning,routemonitoring,
radar overlay and playback facilities;
variable chart
displaymodes;relativeandtruemotiondisplay;and
UAIStransponderinterface,whichmakesthesystem
powerfulaidfornavigationandthecoreofsmartINS
(Integrated Navigation System) in combination with
otherproducts.
3.3 ECDISDataBase
A fully complaint ECDIS (Paperless) must be using
ENC vector charts (also
called S ‐57’s in reference to
the IHO performance standards publication S‐57).
Vectorchartscontainthechartinformationnecessary
forsafe navigation, and may contain supplementary
informationinadditiontothatcontainedonthepaper
chart (e.g., Sailing Directions). Vector charts are
intelligent, in that systems using them can
be
programmedtogivewarningofimpendingdangerin
relationtotheshipʹspositionandmovement.It’sbest
tothinkofvectorchartsasasinglechartfortheentire
world that are arranged in layers with each layer
beingadifferentscale.
The ENCs themselves are as important as
the
system that displays them. Again confusion
sometimesexistsbetweenofficialENCswhichhaveto
be produced by or on behalf of a government
authorized Hydrographic Office, and other
commercialelectroniccharts which,whilstthey may
beabletobedisplayedon anECDISsystem, donot
comply with the
IMO regulations for use as the
primarynavigationalchartsystem.Onlywhenofficial
ENCsareruninacompliantECDISsystemcanitbe
called an ECDIS. All other chart data used
immediatelydowngradesthesystemto an ECS,and
non‐compliant, under the terms of the SOLAS
regulationsforuse
ofElectronicChartsasaprimary
means of navigation for merchant shipping [Becker‐
Heins,2014;Weintrit,2009].
The other type of chart is called a Raster Chart;
thesechartslookmorelikethetraditionalpaperchart
andinfactarejustascannedimageofapaperchart.
These are
single charts and like traditional charts
mustbeputinaportfolioandattachedtoa passage
planwithintheECDIS.AshipusingRasterChartsis
notanECDISshipbutaRCDS(RasterChartDisplay
System)shipandmustcarrypaperchartsonboardas
perAppendix7of
IMOMSC232.(82)[IMO,2006]and
SN.1/Circ.207.
474
3.4 UpdatingSystem
Correcting and upgrading a navigation chart is a
constant process. Once a chart is published,
constantlychangingnavigationalfeaturesandaidsor
otherrelevantinformationhavetobepromulgatedin
ordertoupdatetheshipsnavigatinginthose areas.In
principle the generation and distribution of regular
updates for ENCs follows a similar organisational
structuretotheproductionanddistributionofENCs.
The frequency of updates is normally synchronised
with the chart corrections promulgated by national
Notice to Mariners (weekly edition) for the affected
sea areas. Updates may reach a ship via different
ways depending upon the
capabilities of the ENC
serviceproviderandthe communicationfacilitieson
board[IHOS‐66,2018]:
Ondatadistributionmedia,e.g.CD;
Asane‐mailattachmentviaSATCOM;and
As a broadcast message via SATCOM plus
additionalcommunicationhardware.
Checkingchartscorrectionsisquitesimpleasmost
systemsallowinformationtobeupdatedviaaCDor
emailsuppliedbyachartagentonaweekly,monthly
basis or quarterly basis. Alternatively all systems
haveaChartCorrectionor Updatelog,wherebythe
usercanseethecorrections appliedanddateapplied.
MSC 232.(82) [IMO, 2006]. It
is considered that any
data which is navigationally significant must be
contained in the official ENC updates from the
Hydrographic offices which are sent to the ships
weekly. If not, data ba se loses status of electronic
navigationalchart.Ifarenotreceivedregularlyevery
week,databaselosesstatusofelectronic
navigational
chart.
3.5 PaperlessNavigation
A mere 30‐40 years back, navigators would have
scoffed at the idea of Paperless Navigation on big
ocean going ships. After all, since centuries,
navigationalpaperchartshadbeentheheartandsoul
ofshipnavigation.Imaginingthatadaywouldcome
where we’d
no longer have them on board was
nothingshortofblasphemy.Everysinglenavigating
officer who’s been out at sea “long enough” still
fondly recollects joining vessels with his own
treasured chart correction pen. However, the
unthinkabledidhappen.Thetransitionstartedslowly
withsmallervesselslikepleasurecrafts,tugboats
and
yachts. But now, armed with the IMO mandate for
compulsoryECDIScarriage,thelargevesselssuchas
thesupertankersandgiantcontainervesselsarealso
runningsmoothlywithoutpapercharts.
In 2005 Simrad launched on the market a new
system,theCS68 ECDIS. Forthe launchof the
CS68
ECDIS,Simradintroducedanewphrasetotheworld
of electronic navigation‐PLECDIS‐or Paper Less
ECDIS.Thefullyapprovedandredundantnatureof
theECDISmeantthatnopaperchartswererequired
onboard.Thisprovidedcrewandownersbenefitsin
costandefficiency,andenabledavessel ʹs
navigation
to become truly self‐sufficient. It provided fully
compliant ECDIS functionality, a wealth of value
addedfeaturesandfullredundancy.
3.6 Assessmentand CertificationofPaperlessNavigation
Ashipownersoptingfortheapplicationofequivalent
arrangement concerning ECDIS shall submit all
relevantinformationtotheirClassificationSocietyin
order
forthemtoassesswhethertherequirementsfor
ʹpaperless navigationʹ are met. In addition, the
ClassificationSociety conducts a survey on board to
verify whether the installation has been installed as
per the submitted documentation. As far as the
certification is concerned, compliance with the
equivalent arrangement concerning ECDIS: it
is
indicated by means of the Cargo Ship Safety
Certificate.
HowtodetermineiftheshipisafullECDISship?
By checking Form E of the Cargo Ship Safety
EquipmentCertificateifit’safullECDISshipandis
not carrying paper charts the backup system will
normallysayprovided.
Ifthebackupsystemischarts
itwillsaynauticalcharts.Howeverbecauseitslisted
as an ECDIS ship, doesn’t always mean it fully
complies. In order for the ECDIS to be compliant it
must meet the performance standards as set by the
IMOinMSC.232(82)[IMO,2006].
4 ASSESSMENT
STANDARDFORECSISO19379
Inordertomeettherequirementmentionedabovean
(international) standard for privately manufactured
datawasdevelopedover thepasttwentyyears.The
standard, ISO 19379, was prepared by Technical
Committee ISO/TC8 (Ships and Marine Technology,
subcommitteeSC6,Navigation)andadoptedin2003.
National authorities could
consider accepting
privately manufactured data meeting ISO 19379 as
paper chart equivalent for certain (non‐SOLAS)
vessels. The US and Italian governments have
amendedimmediatelythelawtoallowfishingvessels
and leisure craft fitted with ECS and electronic
navigationaldatathatmeetstheISOstandard,tosail
withoutpaper
chartsintheirwaters[Malie,2003].
ISO 19379 is the international standard that
specifies the requirements for ECS databases,
especiallyasregardstheelementsrelevanttosafetyof
navigation, such as content, quality and updating.
The standard was developed by ISO (International
Organization for Standardization), with the
contribution of Hydrographic Offices,
Classification
Authorities, and the Marine Industry, and is being
adoptedbyMaritimeAdministrationstoregulatethe
useofECS[Malie,2003].
ISO 19379 provides guidance on production and
testing of an ECS Database. It does not provide de‐
tailed coverage of the methods and techniques
required for database design and
development, nor
does it address specific quality management
procedures.Thestandardisapplicabletobothvector
and raster charts. It is envisaged that national
regulatory authorities may wish to require
compliance with this standard as guidance for data
usedinECSorothersystemsofelectronicnavigation
intheir countries.The
Standard hasbeen developed
to make the ECS chart display as reliable as the
officialpaperchartanditsequivalentENC.Theaim
hasbeentodevelopastandardeasytointerpretbut
475
with content and accuracy levels at least equal to
thoseoftheENCofthesamearea,carefullyavoiding,
however, any over‐specification or rigid structure.
Thecontentsofthechartareverymuchinlinewith
the requirements as described in IHO S‐52
“SpecificationsforChartContentand
DisplayAspects
ofECDIS”[IHOS‐52,2014].
5 ELECTRONICNAVIGATIONALCHARTS(ENC)
ANDECDIS
Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) means the
database, standardized as to content, structure and
format, issued for use with ECDIS by or on the
authorityofaGovernment,authorizedHydrographic
Office or other relevant government institution,
and
conformtoIHOstandards.TheENCcontainsallthe
chart information necessary for safe navigation and
may contain supplementary information in addition
to that contained in the paper chart (e.g. sailing
directions) which may be considered necessary for
safenavigation[IMO,2006].
An Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) is a
digital
representationofthepapercharts,adigitalfile
that contains all the chart information necessary for
safenavigation,aswellassupplementaryinformation
required to plan voyages and avoid groundings
(route planning and route monitoring). ENCs are
official vector‐based electronic charts designed to
meet the relevant chart carriage requirements
of the
SOLAS convention. When displayed within certain
parameters,andusingatypeapprovedECDIS,ENCs
fullysatisfySOLASchartcarriagerequirements,and
socanbeusedastheprimarymeansofnavigation.
If we will use the automotive comparison, the
ECDISsystemisacar,whilethemapsarefuel.
Some
carsareforoil,othersforgasoline,someforLPG. If
we pour water, beer, milk, wine, coca cola or other
liquid into the tank (official, certificated, or not) the
carwillnotmove.InthecaseofECDIS,thesesystems
are based on vector maps, standardized, official
ENCs,
usingrasterchartsRNCsweobtainthestatus
ofRCDS,butanyotherdatabaseuseddoesnotlead
to the possibility that we will be able to safe and
effectivenavigate.
5.1 WhatInstead ofENCinthePast?HowDidWeFill
theGapsontheScreen?
Raster charts and
vector charts of private producers
have played a very important role in the past as a
fugues,fillinggapsonthescreenwheretherewereno
official electronic navigational charts. In sea areas
with no ENC coverage navigators had the choice
either of using official raster data or privately
manufactured
vectordata. Nodoubt the first option
offered, next to the use of ‘official’ charts, the
advantage that the number of paper charts carried
were considerably reduced, whereas the second
required a full set but retained almost full ECDIS
functionality (including the alarm functions) that
couldonlybeobtainedusingvector
charts.
This option was preferred in the past by several
shipowners, particularly those operatingtheir ships
globally.AlthoughmostECDISdidsupportprivately
manufactured data produced by the major
manufacturers,manyuserspreferred(mainlyforcost
reasons) ECS, particularly as many of these systems
met the software requirements laid
down in IEC
61174 (ECDIS Operational and Performance
Requirements)andwere lessexpensive. Inthis case,
of course, paper charts were used for primar y
navigation.
Figure2.RelationshipbetweenelectronicchartsystemsECS,ECDISanddatabases[Weintrit,2009,2010]
476
Electronic Chart Systems (ECS)
ECDIS
ECDIS/RCDS
ECS
Standardised by ISO
ENC RNC
Vector
Charts
Raster
Charts
Figure3.RelationshippyramidbetweenelectronicchartsystemsECS/ECDISanddatabases[Weintrit,2009,2010]
5.2 ENCandthePrivateDataManufacturers
As mentioned before, there was no doubt that the
number of ENCs will increase with time. Although
still expensive compared with privately
manufactured vector data, prices have come down
considerably recently. This may move the market to
purchase more ENC. Most helpful is the
support of
private manufacturers in acting as value‐added re‐
sellers and in providing ENC in SENC format. Pay
special attention on the agreements between
NorwegianHydrographicServiceNHSandJeppesen
(formerC‐Map)andalsobetweenUKHOandTransas
(TADS‐TransasAdmiraltyDataService).Nodoubt
that private manufacturers
are keen to ‘fill the gap’
withtheirowndataifnecessary.
5.3 MandatoryUseofECDIS
The1stofJuly2018turnedouttobeahistoricdatefor
chart navigation at sea. On exactly this day ECDIS
carriage requirement is now mandated for any new
and existing vessel of
relevant size on international
voyages. This date, however, will not gain any
particular reaction from those who are affected and
this is due to the applicability and implicitness of
technology. It is fair to say that this date marks
symbolically that ship navigation has accomplished
theprincipalshiftfromanalogue
paperchartstothe
eraofdigitalchartnavigation
The International Maritime Organization (IMO)
has made the carriage of ECDIS (Electronic Chart
Display and Information System) mandatory under
SOLAS V for most large vessels. This regulatory
requirementshouldnotbe interpretedasasignthat
ECDIS should simply meet the carriage
of charts
requirement, or indeed that any mariner should be
over reliant on global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS). The introduction of ECDIS has led to an
increasing debate about the importance of ‘active’
navigation as opposed to ‘passive’ navigation. The
mandatory use of ECDIS is seen to promote
increasingly passive
navigation and complacency,
with paper charts being relegated to just ‘reference
use’ with infrequent plotting of the ship’s position
ontopaper.Asaresult,toooftenGNSSisbeingrelied
onasthesolemeansofnavigation,whatisdefinitely
unprofessionalapproach.
TheECDISsystemcanbecompared toa musical
instrument,duetothelargenumberofdifferentkeys
and switches it is best for the piano or pianoforte.
Unfortunately,onlyafew,aftermanyweeksoreven
monthsoftraining,willbeabletopla y aconcerton
theirinstrument,therestwillplaysimplescalesand
easypassages,
orusuallywithonefingertriedtoplay
a known melody. Only solid everyday honest work
willleadtotheproperuseofthisinstrumentwithout
producing unexpected squeaks and false sounds.
Professionaltrainingisveryimportant.
477
Figure4.Canchartformatnamesindicatecarriagecompliance?(IHOS‐66,2018)
5.4 CanChartFormatNamesIndicateCarriage
Compliance?
Therehasbeenmuchconfusionregardingthenames
usedtodescribeelectronicchartdistributionformats.
Thediagrambelow(Fig.4)isintendedtoclarifythis.
From the diagram it can be seen that the same
distribution format can be used for the delivery
of
both priva te and official chart data. For example,
‟BSB‟isthetermusedforthedistributionformatof
USandCanadianRNCs.Thesametermisalsoused
for the distribution of private raster chart data in
otherareas(forexample,inEuropeanwaters).
There can also be
confusion with ENCs. Private
vector chart data delivered in S‐57 format does not
meet IMO requirements and should never be
described as an ENC. Similarly private vector data
deliveredinaSENCformatcanbemistakenasbeing
ENCsdeliveredinthesameSENCformat.
The most important factor to
consider in
determining whether data is official is the source
rather than the format. The source or originator
determinestheoperationalstatusandthepurposefor
whichthechartdatamaybeused.Thecombinationof
thestatusofthechartdataandthefunctionalityofthe
particular device finally
determines whether an
electronic chart navigation ”system” is operating as
anECDISorasanECS.
5.5 ExamplesofElectronicChartFormats
ManyECSsystemsareabletouseENCorRNCdata,
howeverevenwhenusingofficialchartstheymaynot
be used to fulfil ECDIS carriage requirements in
accordance
withSOLASchapterV
Examples of format names used by private data
producers:
CM‐93 chart data produced by Jeppesen Marine
(previouslyknownasC‐Map),
TX‐97vectorchartdataproducedbyTransas,
BSBRasterchartformatusedby,forexample,the
USAandCanada.
6
PROSANDCONSOFECDISORPAPERLESS
NAVIGATIONOFSHIPS
We cannot deny the fact that ECDIS does have an
edgeoverpapercharts.Let’sdiscusssomeofthepros
and cons of paperless navigation. When it comes to
electronicnavigation,anemphasisonunderstanding
the possible anomalies of the ECDIS
system entirely
shouldalwaysbeinmind.Therefore,achangeinthe
mindset of navigation is required for understanding
ECDIS limitations and possibilities, including its
benefits and disadvantages. Only with an ECDIS‐
oriented mindset, the navigator will efficiently
integrate the system in the ongoing navigational
process. Taking everything into consideration,
the
navigatorshouldbeadequatelypreparedandvigilant
to monitor problems, assess hazards and consider
controlmeasuresfor thesystemin ordertogain the
benefits from electronic navigation [Herwadkar,
2017].
6.1 TheCons(Disadvantages)
Whatmaygowrong?:
Over‐Reliance. With an equipment which is
seemingly fool‐proof, there
is a tendency for
navigatorstooverrelyonit.Nomatterhowgood
theECDISis,itsperformancestilllargelydepends
upon the inputs. The purpose of the ECDISis to
facilitateefficientnavigation,nottosubstituteit.
Information Overload. Too much information on
screen may cause clutter
and can be distracting.
The navigator may lose critical minutes on non‐
importantitemswhiledecisionsshouldbetaken.
Complacency due to automatic plotting of
position.Aspositionsonpaperchartswere“past
positions”thenavigatorcontinuallycheckedthem
478
again and again. Now the real time position
createsa falsesafeemotionand thefelling thata
lasttimeresponsewillbeenough.
Garbage In‐Garbage Out (GIGO): ECDIS at the
endoftheday,isamachineanddependssolelyon
the type of inputs that it
receives. Erroneous
positioninputsfromtheGPSorlossofGPSsignal
can have grave consequences with the ECDIS
goinginDRmode.Ifthealarmismissedout,the
result can be disastrous. Hence, it is vitally
importanttochecktheperformanceofsensorsand
to carry out frequent
comparisons between the
primary and secondary means of position fixing.
OtherinputssuchastheGyro,Log,Echosounder,
Navtex, etc. should be frequently verified
independentlytoensuresmoothoperation.
Wrong settings. Considering that ECDIS is an
equipmentsystem,ifwrongsettingsareinstalled,
theinformationprovidedtonavigatorwillnot
be
accurate. Feeding in wrong parameters for safety
critical settings such as the Safety Depths, Safety
Contoursetccangiveafalsesenseofsafety.Itis
extremely important that the Master himself
checksthesesettingseach timetheyare changed.
Thesesettingsshould bepasswordprotectedand
every navigator
should verify them each time
priortakingoverthewatch.Alarmsshouldnotbe
deactivated without strong reason and neverjust
for the sake of avoiding frequent alarms. All the
alarmsinuseshouldbeproperlydocumentedand
theirswitchingonandoffshouldbecontrolledby
adefinedprocedure
Alarm Fatigue. If alarms start going off too
frequently, the navigator could end up in a
dangerous situation called Alarm Deafness. This
leads to the watch keeper acknowledging the
alarmevenwithoutcheckingwhatitwas.Hewill
eventuallyrunout of luckand there could be an
occasion where
he might miss out on a critical
warning such as approaching shallow contour.
Hence, alarms should be carefully chosen which
areappropriatetotheprevailingconditions.Every
single alarm should be checked and investigated
prioracknowledging.
DifferentTypes.Navigationonpaperchartswasa
skill which had to be mastered
just once. It was
thenjust routine practice which keptone in tune
withthings.However,thisdoes nothappen with
ECDIS.Differentvesselswillhave differenttypes
ofECDISequipment.Eveniftheessentialfeatures
arethesame,itstilltakesalotoffiddlingaround
untilonegets
comfortablewiththemachine.
Anomalies:Everynavigatorneedstobeaware of
the anomalies present in that particular
equipment. It could be a simple use of the
SCAMIN(ScaleMinimum)functionorsomething
seriouswherecertaindepthsorsymbolsmightnot
be visible at a particular scale or appear
differently.
Complete familiarisation with the
ECDISequipmentisamust.
ResistancetoChange:Althoughthissoundslikea
trivial issue, it can be quite problematic. Most of
the present day navigators have grown up in an
era where paper charts was the only means of
navigation. Not having these onboard
could for
themmeannothavinganaidonwhichtheyhave
reliedalltheirlives. Thetransitioncannotbeeasy
and this could create a mental block for many.
Hence it is vital, that senior navigators embrace
thisnewtechnologywithopenarmsanddotheir
bittoimprovethe
processofchange.
Lack of ENCs for certain trading areas which
requiretheadditionalpaperchartscarriage.
6.2 ThePros(Advantages)
BenefitsofECDISuse:
Reduced workload for the navigator (charts and
nautical publications updating, voyage planning,
allinformationin“onehand”).
Easy Correction of charts and
publications. All
experienced navigators may recall in their mind
the endless hours of chart and publication
corrections. Before the advent of paperless
navigation, the largest chunk of the Navigating
Officer’s work time was consumed in Correcting
Charts. The Navigating Officer now receives
weeklyupdatestotheElectronicChartsviaEmail
which
he has to download onto a zip drive and
uploadthemtotheECDIS.EventhedreadedT&P
notices are now shown electronically on the
ECDIS.
Navigationinrealtime.Oneofthesinglebiggest
advantages of the ECDIS over paper charts is its
ability to enable the user
to see the vessel’s
position in real time without user action.
Navigation in real time increasing situational
awareness in combination with proper lookout.
WiththeECDISsystemthepositiondisplayonthe
chart is the present position. When the paper
chartsused theposition plotted onthe chart was
the position
at the time it was received several
minutesago.
Accuracy. As many systems are mixed and
analysed the result of actual position and
advancedmovementismoreaccurate.
Easy route planning. Route planning is much
easier,interactiveandlesstime‐consuming.
Easy route monitoring, with all required
information displayed in short time. Though
ECDIS has now evolved into a full‐fledged
primary source of navigation, it was born as an
Anti‐Grounding aid to Navigation. Even to this
day,the ability of theECDIS to warnthe userof
approaching shallow waters make it one of the
most
usefulequipmentonthebridge.Theuserhas
complete flexibility to determine these safety
settings on the ECDIS. While there are certain
safetycriticalalarmsthatareONbydefaultsand
cannotbechanged,thereareahostofotheralarms
andwarningswhichmaybeswitchedonoroff
by
theUserdependingonthesituation.
Predictionofspecialmanoeuvres(predictedpath,
trial manoeuvre, docking mode). All the systems
also include Man Overboard function and search
and rescue functions providing information
quicklywithoutmuchsearching.
•Availability of charts, especially those charts
requiredfornotprogrammedvoyages.One
ofthe
greatadvantagesofECDISoverpaperchartsisthe
availability of electronic charts – especially when
voyageordersarereceivedatthelastminute.
•Accesstoadditionalinformationresources.
•CostEfficient.Although,electronicchartsareby
nomeanscheap,theystillhaveanedge
overpaper
charts dollar for dollar. Electronic Chart Permits
479
are obtained electronically with minimum data
usage. Paper charts though, have to be delivered
physically which involved handling fees by the
agents,especiallyiforderedatthelastminute.All
thiscanbeavoidedbyusingElectronicCharts.
7 DIFFERENCESBETWEENRASTERCHART
DISPLAYSYSTEM(RCDS)ANDECDIS
Raster Chart
Display System. Raster Chart Display
System (RCDS) means a navigation information
systemdisplayingRNCswithpositionalinformation
fromnavigationsensorstoassistthemarinerinroute
planning and route monitoring, and if required,
displayadditionalnavigation‐relatedinformation.
The RNCs are raster charts that conform to
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)
specificationsandareproducedbydigitallyscanning
a paper chart image. The image may be either the
finishedchartitselforthestablecolourbasesusedin
the multi‐colour printing process. The resulting
digital file may then be displayed in an electronic
navigation system where the vessel’s position,
generally derived
from electronic position fixing
systems,canbe shown.Sincethedisplayed dataare
merely a digital photo‐copy of the original paper
chart, the image has no intelligence and, other than
visually,cannotbeinterrogated.
Themarinersʹattentionisdrawntothefollowing
limitationsoftheRCDSmode[IMO,2006]:
Unlike ENC, where there are no displayed
boundaries,RNCsare basedon papercharts and
as such have boundaries which are evident in
ECDIS;
RNCswillnottriggerautomaticalarms(e.g.anti‐
grounding).However,alarmsandindicationscan
be generated with the manual addition, during
passageplanning,e.g.of
clearinglines,shipsafety
contourlines,isolateddangermarkersanddanger
areastomitigatetheselimitations;
Horizontal datums and chart projections may
differbetweenRNCs.Marinersshouldunderstand
how a chartʹs horizontal datum relates to the
datumofthepositionfixingsysteminuse.Insome
instances, this may appear as a shift in position.
This difference may be most noticeable at grid
intersections;
AnumberofRNCscannotbereferencedtoeither
WGS‐84 or PE 90 geodetic datums. Where this is
the case, ECDIS should give a continuous
indication;
ThedisplayofRNCsfeaturescannot
besimplified
by the removal of features to suit a particular
navigational circumstance or task at hand. This
couldaffectthesuperimpositionofradar/ARPA;
Without selecting different scale charts the look ‐
aheadcapabilitymaybelimited.Thismayleadto
inconvenience when determining range and
bearingortheidentity
ofdistantobjects;
Orientation of the RCDS display to other than
chart‐up, may affect the readability of chart text
andsymbols(e.g.course‐up,route‐up);
It is not possible to interrogate RNC features to
gainadditionalinformationaboutchartedobjects.
Whether using ENC or RNC, in the
planning
process a mariner should consult all relevant
publications(suchassailingdirections,etc.);
With RNC, it is not possible to display a shipʹs
safetycontourorsafetydepthandhighlightiton
the display unless these features are manually
enteredduringrouteplanning;
Depending on the
source of the RNC, different
colours may be used to show similar chart
information. There may also be differences in
coloursusedduringdayandnighttime;
AnRNCisintendedtobeusedatthescaleofthe
equivalent paper chart. Excessive zooming in or
zoomingoutcanseriously
degradethe displayed
image. If the RNC is displayed at a larger scale
than the equivalent paper chart, the ECDIS will
provideanindication;and
ECDIS provides an indication in the ENC which
allows a determination of the quality of
hydrographic the data. When using RNCs,
marinersareinvitedtoconsultthesourcediagram
orthezoneofconfidencediagram,ifavailable.
Figure5.OperationalstatusofECDIS[Weintrit,2009]
480
8 OTHERTYPESOFELECTRONICCHART
SYSTEMS
8.1 WarshipElectronicChartDisplayandInformation
System(WECDIS)
Theconceptofadditionalmilitarylayers(AML)was
introduced in 1995 with the intent to define a
standardizedformatfornon‐navigationaldata.Since
1995, various North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) standardization agreement documents
concerning AML data and warship electronic chart
display and information systems (WECDIS) have
beencreated.NATO hassince endorsed afew AML
productspecifications,andcompletedsea trialsusing
AML datasets. However, as more nations move
towardAMLdataproduction,nottoomuchisknown
abouthowthedatawill
performasoverlayswithina
WECDISadheringtoNATOWECDISstandards.
Using precise military integrated navigation
system the sophisticated electronic chart system
designedtomeetthespecificnavigationaldemandsof
themilitarymarket,thestrengthsandweaknessesof
how AML data interacts with other data types,
primarily ENC data, within the
WECDlS were
identified. As stated in the WECDIS standard, a
WECDIS meansʺan ECDIS as defined by the
International Maritime Organization (IMO), with
additionalfunctionalityfornavigationandconductof
warfareonboardwar‐shipsʺ.Wemightalsoconsider
referring to the concept of Marine Information
Overlays(MIO)which
havebeenusedintheMarine
Electronic Highway project, and whose use are
gatheringsupportwithinthee‐Navigationdiscussion.
8.2 InlandECDIS
InlandECDIS(I‐ECDIS)isasystemforthedisplayof
electronic inland navigation charts and additional
information.Itspurposeistocontributetosafetyand
efficiency of
inland navigation and thus also to
protectionoftheenvironment.SimultaneouslyInland
ECDISistoreducetheworkloadwhennavigatingthe
ship as compared to traditional navigation and
informationmethods.InlandECDISprovidesalsothe
basis for other River Information Services (RIS), e.g.
InlandAIS.
The Inland ECDIS standard provides
a uniform
basisfortheuseofelectronicinlandnavigationcharts
andfortheuseoftelematicsapplicationslikeInland
AIS transponders or other methods of identifying,
tracingandtrackingofvesselsoninlandwaterways.
It contains the technical and operational
requirements, testing methods and required test
resultsforInlandECDIS
applications.
InlandElectronicNavigationalCharts(IENCs)are
official digital vector charts produced by inland
waterway authorities in accordance with the
International Hydrographic Organisationʹs (IHO)
productspecificationS‐57[IHOS‐57,2014],extended
for use on inland waterways. Inland ENC (IENC)
means the database, standardized as to content,
structure
and format, issued for use with Inland
ECDIS. The Inland ENC complies with the IHO
standards S‐57 and S‐52 [IHO S‐52, 2014], enhanced
bytheadditionsandclarificationsofthisstandardfor
InlandECDIS.TheInlandENCcontainsallessential
chart information and may also contain
supplementaryinformation
thatmaybeconsideredas
helpfulfornavigation [Weintrit,2010].IENCs follow
the IHO S‐57 data exchange standard, which is
recognized by software vendors and government
hydrographicofficesforelectronicchartapplications.
BecauseofthetechnicalsimilaritybetweenIENCs
andSOLASENCs, bothcanusuallybedisplayedon
both
ECDISandinlandnavigationsystems.However,
the inland IENC standard is a superset of the ENC
standard. Therefore, an ECDIS system will not
normally display inland waterway specific objects
andsymbolscorrectly.
9 NAVIGATIONTERMINOLOGYANDICONSOF
FUNCTIONSRELATEDTOECDIS
The IMO is working on Guidelineson Standardized
Modes
ofOperation,S‐Mode[IMO,2018].Thesedraft
guidelines apply to Integrated Navigation Systems
(INS), Electronic Chart Display and Information
Systems(ECDIS)andRadarequipment.Theymaybe
appliedtootherelectronicnavigationequipment,and
navigationsensorswhereapplicable,whereitwould
improve standardization and usability. The aim of
these
elaborated guidelines is to promote
standardization of user interfaces to help meet user
needs.Theguidancewithintheseguidelineshasbeen
developedinclosecollaborationwithaninternational
associationofequipmentmanufacturerstoensureits
efficient implementation. Improved standardization
of the user interface and information used by
seafarers to monitor, manage
and perform
navigational tasks will enhance situation awareness
andsafeandeffectivenavigation.
In one of appendix to these guidelines were
identified commonly‐used functions on navigation
equipment and for each function specified the
associated terminology, abbreviation and (where
appropriate) icons. These terms, abbreviations and
icons of functions (hot keys
and shortcuts), if
available,arerecommendedtobeusedforthedisplay
of navigation‐related information, to promote
consistency of presentation across navigational
equipment.
Whereicons,termsand/orabbreviationsareused,
they must meet the requirements of this appendix.
Where a standard term, abbreviation, or icon is not
available,another icon,
termor abbreviationmaybe
used,buttheseshouldnotconflictwiththoselistedin
theappendix.
The icons specified may indicate a status, may
executeaspecificfunction(hotkey),ormayprovide
accesstoagroupofrelatedfunctions(shortcut).Only
the shape of the icon was specified;
this appendix
doesnotspecifyacolourschemeforicons.
InTable1arepresentediconsoffunctionsrelated
toECDIS,proposedbyIMOexpertgroup.
481
Table1.Proposediconsoffunctions relatedtoECDIS[IMO,
2018]
Ex
p
lanation Term Abbreviation Icon
(
hotke
y)
Toselect
ECDISmode
(formulti‐
function
displays)
ECDIS ECDIS
Toexport
routeplan
Export
Route
RTEEXPORT
Toimport
routeplan
Import
Route
RTEIMPORT
Totoggle
radaroverlay
Radar
overlay
RADAROVR
Toprovide
additional
mariner’s
information.
User
Chart
USRCHT
Toaccess
routeplan
functionality
Route
planning
ROUTEPLAN
Toaccess
route
monitoring
functionality
Route
monitorin
g
ROUTE
MON
Toaddor
remove
information
fromthe
ECDIS
dis
p
la
y
Chart
display
settings
CHARTDISP
SET
Table2presentsauthor’sproposalforaniconthat
allows to select the ECDIS mode. Unfortunately, it
was not accepted by most IMO’s expert group.
Accordingtotheauthor,itwasmuchbettertousean
icon with three fields marked on ECDIS screen:
Electronic Chart Area, Information Area and Main
Menu Area. In addition, we could mark the motion
vectorwithpositioninformation.
Table2.IconforECDISproposedbyAuthor
Ex
p
lanation Term Abbreviation Icon
(
hotke
y)
Toselect
ECDISmode
(formulti‐
function
displays)
ECDIS ECDIS
10 CONCLUSIONS
It is nice to announce that the project of an
international implementation of ECDS for ships has
beenfullyrealized.Ofcoursethereisstillalottodo,
butpaperlessnavigationhasbecomeareality.
Although, perhaps a bit biased towards the old
school paper chart navigation, we
cannot deny the
factthatECDISdoeshaveanedgeoverpapercharts.
Whenitcomestoelectronicnavigation,anemphasis
on understanding the possible anomalies of the
ECDIS system entirely should always be in mind.
Therefore, a change in the mindset of navigation is
required for understanding ECDIS limitations
and
possibilities,includingitsbenefitsanddisadvantages.
OnlywithanECDIS‐orientedmindset,thenavigator
will efficiently integrate the system in the ongoing
navigationalprocess.
Taking everything into consideration, the
navigatorshouldbeadequatelypreparedandvigilant
to monitor problems, assess hazards and consider
controlmeasuresfor thesystemin order
togain the
benefits from electronic navigation, simply play
smoothly, using music notes. Training is extremely
important.Practicemakesperfect.AswesaidECDIS
islikeamusicalinstrument,apiano.Onlythosewho
practice on it every day, in a few years will play a
concertonit,the
restwillfalsify mercilesslyor play
simple melodies, scales and passages for the rest of
theirlives.
The main fields of ECDIS benefits are the
following: efficient updating, route monitoring,
situational awareness, route planning, safety alarms,
voyage recording, and paper chart reduction.
Mortimer Rogoff, one of the pioneers in the
development
of Electronic Chart Systems, President
of NECSA (Navigational Electronics Charts System
Association), said in 1992: “Two of the newest
navigation stars for ships can’t be found in the
Nautical Almanac: GPS and electronic chart display
and information system (ECDIS). Individually, GPS
tellsyouyourlocationandECDISshowsitto
you”.In
2000 Lee Alexander, professor University of New
Hampshire, an internationally recognised expert in
electroniccharting,added:“Apaperchartshowsyou
where you were, or shouldn’t be. ECDIS tells you
where you are, and can safely go” [Weintrit, 2009].
Thesearetwoimportanttimelessdeclarations.
All systems, which are
not checked to show
compliance with the ECDIS Performance Standards,
can be generically designated as ”Electronic Chart
Systems” (ECS). An ECS may be able to use either
official ENCs, RNCs or other chart data produced
privately and could have functionality similar to
ECDIS,butcan’tbelegalequivalentofpaper
charts.
SomeECSequipmentmanufacturersalsoproduce
vectorandrasterdatatouseintheirproducts.These
suppliershavebeenproducingprivatechartdatafor
anumberofyearsandhaveestablishedthemselvesin
the market. They were the pioneers and have
established the idea and the use of electronic chart
systems on vessels. Their charts are derived from
Hydrographic Office paper charts or Hydrographic
Office digital data. Regardless of that, where the
vesseloperateswithECS,thepaperchartremainsthe
officialbasisfornavigationonboard.Thevesselmust
retainandusea fullfolioofup‐to‐datepaper
charts
on board, regardless of the type of electronic charts
used. ECS is not intended to meet SOLAS
requirements, there are no IMO Performance
StandardsforECS.
482
The IMO elaborates the guidelines for the
standardization of user interface design for
navigation equipment, including ECDIS. These
guidelines stem from a compelling user need for
greater standardization to enhance usability across
navigation equipment and systems. Significant
variation betweensystems and equipment produced
bydifferentmanufacturershasledtoinconsistency
in
the way essential information is presented,
understood and used to perform key navigation
safety functions. Improved standardization of
electronicchartsystemswillprovideuserswithmore
timely access to essential information and functions
thatsupportsafenavigation.
The classification of electronic chart systems was
presented taking into consideration the
following
criteria: international standards, certification by
classification society, used data base, updating
system,certificationbymaritimeadministration,and
specificuserneeds.
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