243
1 INTRODUCTION
Recent advances in information technology and
computer power have the potential to further
strengthen the quality of navigation and ship‐shore
collaboration (see for example Ward, Alexander &
Greenslade 2009; Weintrit 2011; Kim, Jeong & Park
2013;Su,Chang&Cheng2012;Bukhari,Tusseyeva&
Kim2013).However,newand adv
anced technology
may also introduce new problems, such as
informationoverload(Eppler&Mengis2002,Jackson
& Farzaneh 2012), and user interface complexity
(Lützhöft & Dekker, 2002; Lützhöft & Lundh, 2008).
In acknowledgement of these challenges, the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) is now
heading the e‐Navigation initiative, promoting tha
t
newdevelopmentsshouldbeusercenteredandthus
reflectactualoperationalneedsandthelimitationsof
human capabilities (Patraiko & Weintrit, 2010, ISO
9241). In this perspective, the task for further
improving ship‐shore cooperation is clearly not to
simplyintroducemorefunctionalityandinformation,
but to make sure tha
t specific user needs are
identifiedandaddressed.
A holistic approach to the future of ship‐shore
cooperation has been proposed by Van Westrenen
and Praetorius (2014), based on the principle of
distributedvscentralizedcontrol.Theypostulatethat
“whenresourcesbecomeinsufficient(e.g.notenough
Shared Mental Models of Challenging Maritime
Situations: Comparisons of Ship and Shore Personnel in
the Straits of Malacca and Singapore
M.Imset&K.I.Øvergård
UniversityCollegeofSoutheastNorway,Borre,Norway
ABSTRACT:Sharedmentalmodels,measuredassimilarperceptionsandunderstandingsofthecomponentsof
aworktaskor an operative environment, is a key characteristicforhighperformingteams.Identifyingand
addressing differences in mental models may help enhance teamwork, and can serve as a frame for the
improvementofhuman‐centeredinformat
ionandcommunicationsystems.Thispaperhasbeenwrittenaspart
of the SESAME Straits project, a testbed within the e‐Navigation framework. It examines similarities and
differencesinmentalmodelsbetweenDeckOfficersworkingaboardshipsandVesselTrafficServiceOfficers
working ashore. Data was compared the part
icipants´ perception of 12 challenging traffic situations in the
Straitsof Malacca and Singapore. Atotalof 189 respondents participated by meansofanelectronic survey.
FindingsshowthatDeckandVesselTrafficOfficersdohavealargedegreeofsharedmentalmodels,butthat
therealsoaresignificantdifferences.Inpa
rticular,therearelargeship‐shoredifferencesinperceptionsofthe
impact on local ship traffic onsafety and efficiency. The second and third situation of large difference was
delayed or reduced availability of port services, and challenging weather conditions. Implications are that
futuredevelopmentofship‐shore collaborat
ive systems shouldspecificallyexplore and address theissue of
localshiptraffic,andtofindwaystointegrateinformationaboutavailabilityandtimingofportservicesandof
difficultweathersituations.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 11
Number 2
June 2017
DOI:10.12716/1001.11.02.05
244
sailing space), the traffic needs an organizing
mechanism”, that should promote increased ship‐to
ship and ship‐to‐shore communication, sharing of
plansandclosercooperation.Theyfurtherarguethat
theVesselTrafficService(VTS)doesfacilitatethisto
some degree today, but in an incomplete and
unsystematic manner, and
that the VTS and vessels
need to be further improved in order to harvest the
benefits of new technology. Mansson, Lutzhoft, and
Brooks(2016)arguefora needformoreresearchon
theorganizationalpartofthesystem,recommending
adistributedteamperspective.
One key factor for successful ship‐shore
team
work is found to be the ability of VTS Officers to
perceiveandunderstandthenavigationalchallenges
inthesamemannerastheDeckOfficers(Praetorius,
Westrenen, Michell & Hollnagel, 2012; Praetorius,
Bruno&Lützhöft,2010;VanWestrenen&Praetorius,
2014;Praetorius&Lützhöft,2012;Porathe & Brödje,
2015).
Thus,
in order to harvest the benefits of new
communicationtechnologyintosystemsthatprovide
moreusefulinformationandfunctionalitysupporting
ship‐shore teamwork, more knowledge about the
actual similarities and differences in perceptions
betweenDeckandVTSOfficersisneeded.Thispaper
presentsfindingsfromasurveywith189respondents
related to ship traffic in the Straits of Malacca and
Singapore,undertakenaspartoftheSESAMEStraits
project.
2 MENTALMODELSINTEAMS
Intheircomprehensivereviewofteamworkresearch,
Salas,SimsandShawnBurke(2005)extractfivecore
components which they name team leadership,
mutual performance monitoring, backup behavior,
adaptability, and team orientation. With respect to
ship‐shorecooperation,thesefivecomponentsappear
tohavealreadybeenestablishedbyformalruleand
regulations(VanWestrenenandPraetorius,2014).In
addition, Salas et al. (2005) also identify three
supportingcoordinatingmechanismslabelledclosed‐
loopcommunication,mutualtrust,andsharedmental
models, which they found to largely influence the
degreeofteamsuccessandperformance.
As argued by van Westrenen and Praetorius
(2014), while not directly affecting cooperative rules
and regulations, an improved ship‐shore planning
system requires ability and willingness to adjust
whenplansareconflictwitheachother,i.e.to
support
cooperativebehaviourandmutualadjustment.Thisis
inlinewithCannon‐Bowers,Tannenbaum,Salasand
Volpe (1995), stating that team members need to
anticipate each other’s needs, and that the shared
mental model represents their common
understanding of the environment, as well as the
expectedperformance.
The reviewed literature
indicates that ship and
shorepersonnelhaveatleastpartiallysharedmental
models,largelyduetotheirbackgroundandtraining,
but radio communication is also emphasized as an
important contributor. However, the working
environment and responsibilities at a VTS do differ
quiteabitfromthoseaboardaship’sbridge.The
VTS
Officersits in a stationarycontrol room wherelarge
computer screens are the main source of visual
information displays. Deck Officers are aboard a
moving vessel, affected by the changing forces of
nature. He/she is also aided by computerized
information in navigation, but is to give the highest
priority
to direct visual information and bearings
fromthesurroundingenvironment(Witherby,2016).
Wehaveknownforalongtimethatthesedifferences
in available information from the environment can
affecthuman behaviour –bothonatheoreticallevel
(Gibson, 1979) and from empirical research in the
maritime domain (Øvergård, Bjørkli, Hoff
&
Dahlman,2005)aswellasinprocessindustry(Nazir,
Sorensen,Øvergård&Manca,2015).
Thus,acloserstudyofsimilaritiesanddifferences
in mental models between sea and shore personnel
seemsappropriateinordertoaddressspecificissues
for improvement, rather than simply feeding more
informationontotheoperators.
3 SHIPTRAFFICMANAGEMENTINTHE
STRAITSOFMALACCAANDSINGAPORE
TheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore(SOMS)isone
of the busiest and complex waterways in the world
(Qu & Meng, 2012),and thus a highly relevantarea
for the exploration of ship‐shore mental models.
BesidesVTSservices,various
privatecompaniesoffer
marine advisor services (i.e. deep sea pilots) to aid
ship sailing the international waters of the SOMS
(Witherby,2016).WithintheSingaporeharbourarea,
official pilot services are required and provided by
theMaritimePortAuthorityofSingapore.
Due to political interest for the improvement of
ship
trafficsafetyandefficiency,thereisarecordof
previousshiptrafficprojectsintheregionsuchasthe
Maritime Highway (Marlow & Gardner 2006,
Dahalan,Zainol&Ting2013),andalsointheongoing
SESAME Straits project (http://straits‐stms.com/,
2016),wherethegoalistocontributetoimprovement
in
four aspects of ship traffic management (STM).
Thesefouraspectsaredescribedintable1.
Table1.AspectsandgoalsofShipTrafficManagement.
_______________________________________________
No. STMaspect STMgoal
_______________________________________________
1 Safety Increasesafety,reducechancesfor
incidents/accidents
2 Delays Increaseefficiency,reducechancesfor
(intime)delays
3 FuelReducecostandemissions
consumption
4 Information Providemoreinformationthatisofreal
provision valueformariners,andalsoavoid
providingunnecessaryinformation
(overload/clutter)
_______________________________________________
4 RESEARCHPROBLEM
Wewanttoidentifytheextentof differences in sea‐
and shore‐based personnel´s perceptions of the
various aspects of ship traffic in the SOMS.
245
Differencesinperceptionswouldbeindicativeofthe
differences in the focus the operators will have on
different situations. Similar understanding of events
increases the quality of collaboration and
communication (Bruno & Lützhöft, 2005), and the
lack thereof can create collaboration problems –
especially for crew that are at different
locations
(Naziretal.,2015).
Inordertoknowhowtosupportthedevelopment
ofincreasedship‐shorecollaboration,weaddressthe
following research problem: Identify any significant
differencesinthementalmodelsofDeckandVTSOfficers
regardingchallengingtrafficsituationsintheSOMS”.
5 METHOD
5.1 ResearchDesign
The research design is questionnaire‐based and
between‐group, with quasi‐experimental approach
(duetotheimpossibilityofassigningpersonstojobs).
Independentvariablesaregroupmembership(Land‐
based or Ship‐based), while thedependent varia bles
are the relatedness of the described concepts (ref.
table1and2),constitutingtheir
mentalmodelsofthe
shiptrafficsituations.
5.2 Samplingmethod
Due topractical limitations,we applied a
nonprobability, or convenience, sampling method.
ThesurveywasdistributedtotheVTSpersonneland
pilots at the Port of Singapore, as well as one
company providing the services of marine
supervisors. Deck Officers sailing
the SOMS were
reached with the help of members of relevant
organizations and companies participating in the
SESAMEStraitsprojectconsortium.
5.3 Participants
Participating in this study we had the Ship‐based
personnel group, consisting of ship
masters/navigational officers (N = 121, mean times
through SOMS during the last five
years = 19), and
alsomarineadvisors/pilots(N=28,averageyearsof
experience = 8.5 and 13.8 respectively). The Land‐
based personnel group consisted of VTS Officers
(N=48) and VTS Supervisors (N=20) at the Port of
Singapore.
5.4 Questionnairedevelopment
A review of the SOMS passage planning guide
(Witherby, 2016)
– in combination with input from
domainexpertsintheSESAMEprojectconsortium–
resulted in identification and definition of 12
challengingtrafficsituations(seeTable2below).
Table2.Trafficsituationspresentedinthesurvey.NOTE: Situation01and03wasremovedinthesurveyforpilots/marine
advisors,astheexpertgroupdidnotdeemthesesituationsrelevantforthem.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
No ChallengingtrafficsituationSpecification
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
01 LocalfishingactivitiesFishingvesselsoperatinginthefairway
Occurrenceofdriftnetsandmakeshiftbuoysinthefairway
02 Localshiptraffic:Servicevesselsandferriescrossingthefairway/lane
03 Changingfairway/laneconstraints: Changesintrafficseparationzoneandlanewidth
Changesinfairwaydepth
04 Impactof
deepdraughtvesselsand GivingVLCCsandotherdeepdraughtvesselsrequiredspecialattention
VLCCsontrafficflow:Deepdraughtvesselsthatchangespeedorpositioninfairway/routesdueto
waterdepthconstraints
VLCCscrossingthefairwayinbound/outboundShellSBMinSingapore
05 Delaysorreducedavailability
of: Tugsandpilots,berthsandterminals
portservices
06 Complexfairwaytrafficdynamics: Shipsaheadreducingspeedandstoppinginordertopickupforpilot/advisor
Shipsentering,leavingfairway/lanes(includingcrossingoppositelanes)
Shipsovertakingothertraffic
Hightrafficdensityatnarrowsectionsorsharpturning
points
07 Inappropriatebehaviorofotherships: Shipschangingcourseorspeedwithlittleregardtoothertraffic
ShipsnotfollowingrulesandTSSregulations
Shipsnotsteamingatsafespeed
Shipsimpedingthesafepassageofdeepdraftvessels
08 Communicationchallengeswithships: Shipsnotrespondingto
VHFcalls,oronlyspeakinglocallanguage
Rougeorʺunidentifiedʺvessels
ShipsattemptingtouseVHFincollisionavoidanceinstead ofcomplyingwith
ROR/COLREGS
09 Shipmovementinanchorageareas: Shipsmovingwithsmallmarginstootherships,and/ormisjudgetheimpact
ofcurrents,windandotherinfluencingfactors
10 Vesselsthatcouldhamperother Restrictedinabilitytomaneuver
vesselsmovements:Notundercommand
Vesselengagedinlong‐tow
11 Navigationaidsproblems:Unlitbuoy/beacon
Displacedbuoy
12 Challengingweatherconditions: Restrictedvisibilityduetohazeorsquall/thunderstorm
Strongorunexpectedwinds/currents
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
246
Based on these 12 challenging situations, a
questionnairewasconstructed based onanadaption
of the mental model measurement technique called
paired ratings. According to Ross and Allen (2012),
paired ratings measurement is done by presenting
participants with a matrix, where different central
concepts are listedalong the top and
side, and then
asking them to assessment the relatedness between
them by providing scores on a numerical scale. The
firstsetofconceptsusedforourstudywasquestions
relating to safety, delays, fuel consumption and
information, according to table 1. The second set of
concepts was the 12 challenging
traffic situations
describedintable2.
5.5 Measuringrelatednessbysurveyquestionsregarding
STMSgoals
In order to identify relatedness between the ship
traffic management goals and the traffic situations,
respondents were presented with each traffic
situation, followed by a rating scale containing the
four traffic management aspects. We intended to
address two different aspects about information
availability (prediction in advance vs. handing a
currentsituation).Thus,twoquestionweremadefor
this purpose (3 and 5), resulting in a total of five
questions(seeFigure1forallfivequestions).
5.6 StatisticalAnalyses
TheIBMStatisticalPackageforSocialSciences
(SPSS)
version23wasusedforstatisticalanalyses.Atotalof
4MANOVAanalyses(oneforeachofthemainareas
“Safety”,“Delays”,“Fuel Consumption”and
“Information”) was used to control for the family‐
wise error rate when investigating the presence of
differences between shore based and sea based
personnelon
theimpactofthe12situations.
6 RESULTS
The multivariate models indicated that there were
significantdifferences betweenland‐basedandShip‐
based personnel on all four main areas; Delays
(Wilks´ Lambda = 0.646, F
(12, 151) = 6.90, p < 0.00001;
p
2
=.354), Safety (Wilks´ Lambda = 0.751, F(12, 151) =
4.161,p<0.00002;
p
2
=.249),Fuelconsumption(Wilks´
Lambda=0.794,F
(12,151)=3.259, p=0.0003;
p
2
=.206),
and Information (Wilks´ Lambda = 0.706, F
(12, 151) =
5.233, p < 0.00001;
p
2
=.294). Because of this we did
Bonferroni corrected pairwise comparisons of Land‐
and Ship‐based personnel for all 12 situations for
Delays, Safety, Fuel Consumption and Information.
Addingthestandardizedmeandifferencesforeachof
thefourSTMSgoalsprovidesasummaryindicatorof
similarities and differences in the mental models
of
sea and shore personnel with respect to the various
traffic situations. Table 3 shows the effect sizes
measuredinCohen´sd(Cohen,1988)forshiptraffic
delays, safety, fuel, information as well as the
summedCohen´sd.
Figure1. The seven point Likert rating scale applied for
each traffic situation, spanning from “No, never” to “Yes,
always”. NOTE: In the survey for Land‐based (VTS) the
wording of the first question was modified to “These
situationsleadtoshiptrafficdelays”, andthelastquestion
waschangedto
“Ihaveaccesstoeverypieceofinformation
I need for making correct assessment of these situations”.
ThiswasduetothedifferenceintheroleofLandvsShip‐
based personnel. With regards to questions 3 and 5, the
average Pearson correlation across all situations was r =
.768,
the smallest correlation was r = .647 (for local ship
trafficsituation)andthelargestcorrelationwasr=.859(for
complex fairway traffic dynamics). Thus, we chose to
combine these two questions as they both measured the
informationconstructandwerehighlycorrelated.
7 DISCUSSION
Knowingaboutsimilaritiesanddifferencesinshared
mentalmodelscanhelpto improveteam
performance. Thus, we have gathered data about
mentalmodelsfromSeaandLand‐basedpersonnelin
theStraitsof Malacca and Singapore. 12challenging
trafficsituationsand4mainshiptrafficmanagement
goalswereidentified,
andcombined inanelectronic
survey based on the concept of paired ratings. Data
wereanalyzedusingstatisticalmethods.
Ourfindingsshowthatshipandshorepersonnel
to a large extent have shared mental models of
various traffic situationsin terms of their impact on
safety,delaysandfuelconsumption.
However,there
arealsostatisticallysignificantdifferences.
When summarizing the standardized differences
across all situations, local ship traffic (summed
d
s=2.13) clearly stand out as a situation where Ship‐
basedpersonnelperceivealothigherimpactonboth
delays (d
s=0.991) and safety (ds=0.621) than Shore‐
based. Another significant and related difference is
localfishingactivities,whereShip‐basedscorehigher
(d
s=0.723) than the Shore‐based personnel. So, are
Ship‐based personnel overestimating the impact of
thesesituations,ordotheLand‐basedunderestimate
them?Literatureishighlylimitedonthisissue,buta
studyusingriskmodellingofshiptrafficintheStrait
of Istanbul (Ulusçu, Özbaş, Altıok, &
Or, 2009),
concludes that interaction between local traffic and
transit traffic appears to be the most significant
contributortoincreasesinrisk.Thisprovidessupport
tothementalmodelofShip‐basedpersonnel,i.e.that
localshiptrafficactuallyisafactoroflargeimpact.
247
Table3. Summary table of standardized differences between Land‐ and Ship‐based personnel. NOTE: Table show
standardizeddifferencesbetweenthetwogroups(asmeasuredinCohen´sd
s),showingwhichgroupscoredhigher(grey=
Ship‐basedscorehigher,white=Land‐basedscorehigher).Significantdifferencesaremarkedinbold.d
s=Cohen´sdelta
withweightedandpooledstandarddeviations.Summedd
sarecalculatedbyaddingthefourds´sforeachsituation.‘Delays’
=Shiptrafficdelays,‘Fuel’=FuelConsumption,‘Info.’=information,‘Sumd
s’=thesumofthefoursampleeffectsizes.The
largerthesummedd
sthelargerthedifferencesbetweenshoreandshippersonnel.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
SituationsDelaysSafety Fuel Info. Sumds Rank
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
01Localfishingactivities0.036 0.289 0.043 0.723 1.091  5
02Localshiptraffic0.9910.671 0.374 0.094 2.130 1
03Changingfairway/laneconstraints0.057 0.129 0.232 0.258 0.676 10
04Impactofdeepdraughtvessels/VLCCsontrafficflow 0.126 0.037 0.165 0.063 0.391  12
05Delayed/reducedavailabilityofportservices0.667 0.228 0.079 0.308 1.282 2
06Complexfairwaytrafficdynamics0.102 0.196 0.006 0.112 0.416  11
07Inappropriatebehaviourofships0.284 0.202 0.345 0.344 1.175  4
08Communicationchallengeswithships0.282 0.303 0.343 0.006 0.934  7
09Shipmovementinanchorageareas0.246 0.3490.227 0.101 0.923  8
10Vesselsthatcouldhampermovementofothervessels 0.176 0.185 0.340 0.211 0.912  9
11Navigationaidsproblems0.031 0.323 0.313 0.356 1.023  6
12Challengingweatherconditions0.495 0.140 0.440 0.105 1.180  3
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Another major difference in ship‐shore mental
modelsisrelatedtodelayed/reducedavailabilityofport
services.Shore‐basedpersonnelperceivethistohavea
lot higher impact (d
s=0.667) than does Ship‐based
personnel,andtotallythissituationranksassecondin
terms of the total differences score (summed d
s
=1.282). VTS has traditionally focused on vessel
safety,notonefficiency,buttheseissuesareofcourse
interrelated‐delaysmayproducehightrafficdensity,
whichinturnaffectssafety.Someexplanationofthe
mentalmodeldifferencescanbefoundintherecent
studybyManssonetal.(2016),basedon
interviewsof
24 Australian VTS officers. Here,one findingis that
VTS officers are involved in issues related to port
operations on the expense of core vessel traffic
services, and that ship and shore personnel do not
alwaysbaseinterpretationsofthetrafficsituationon
the same information. This support our
findings on
mentalmodeldifferencesalsointheSOMS,andthat
theissueofship‐shoreinformationsharingrelatedto
portservicesneedstobeaddressedinmoredetail.
8 CONCLUSION
Our study has identified that Ship and Land ‐based
(VTS)officershavebothsimilaritiesanddifferencesin
theirmental
modelsoftrafficsituationsintheSOMS.
The largest differences are related to the impact of
local ship traffic, but significant differences are also
found related to delays/reduced availability of port
services, challenging weather conditions and
inappropriate behaviour of ships. These four areas
should be addressed specifically in the future
development
ofcollaborativetechnologysystemsfor
ShipandShorepersonnelintheSOMS.
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