International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 1
Number 3
September 2007
297
Game Based Learning for Seafarers. A
Framework for Instructional Game Design for
Safety in Marine Navigation
I. Sirris & N. Nikitakos
University of the Aegean, Department of Shipping Trade and Transport, Chios, Greece
ABSTRACT: Games according to Gee (2003), are 'multimodal texts' belonging to distinct 'semiotic domains'
that employ a range of strategies in which images, words, sounds, music, movement and bodily sensations are
factors, and their recognition and production evidence of the learning of these emerging literacies. Game
based learning and educational game design, is a multifactor domain combining educational psychology,
learning theory and computer games research demanding the cooperation of two different scientific areas,
education and computer science, having a common work “game design”. In educational games, game design
includes a major task, “embedding suitable educational approach and instructional techniques, for specific
learning outcome and student profile, into the scenario and game play without loosing the fun and attractive
part of it.” In this paper a framework for designing educational games is presented and applied to maritime
education for navigational safety training. The game is designed for adult seafarers and maritime faculty
students in non-formal educational settings.
1 INTRODUCTION
Game Based Learning (G.B.L.) can be very a
powerful educational model as part of non-formal or
informal e-learning with supplementary and
supportive scope to formal education.
Maritime industry can get full advantage of this
emerging technology providing a new way for life
long learning and distance education that supports
active and critical learning.
Unfortunately GBL faces a lot of problems come
partly from the vast differences in how people think
and operate in both arenas: Instructional design that is
connected to education part tends to be systematic,
reasoned, and grounded; and gaming experience that
is more likely to be idiosyncratic, intuitive, and novel.
2 MARITIME EDUCATION
Regulators and shipping interests attempt to create a
safer, more environmentally friendly and secure
maritime transportation sector, writing conventions
such as the STCW that requires specific levels of
knowledge, understanding and skill for all seafarers
on each level of responsibility. Despite this they
have been confronted with the fact that still human
error is the main cause of shipping incidents.
Human error is present in 80% to 90% of all
shipping accidents. Det Norske Veritas Forum
(2000), has recently concluded “human error still
continues to be a serious challenge, accounting for
58% of major [insurance] claims”.
If it is accepted that there is a desire to improve
maritime transportation system, and that human
factors represent one of the key weaknesses in the
system, then there is a need to improve the
298
capabilities to deal with human factor issues. An
attempt to answer the this question come to lifelong
education and practicing and especially in shipboard
training that occupies a large part of quality
education.
In order to create such an educational system we
must analyze learner profile, learning content,
learning and performance context and support it by
suitable learning theories and instructional design.
That’s why before proposing an educational tool
such as educational games, we first have to analyze
the maritime industry from education point of view.
2.1 Characteristics of Sea Service Environment
The sea service environment on board has special
characteristics (Chung Do Nam, 2002) that must be
taken into account while performing needs
assessment and analyzing performance context, at
the analysis and design phase of an educational tool.
1 The attitude of provision against a disaster at sea
is required due to risky environment and
continuous danger exposition.
2 An absent-mindedness and a trifling error from
the crewmember can not be unpardonable
because of the responsibilities for safety,
environment protection and maintenance /
management of ship and cargo property.
3 In case of an accident happens on ship, it must be
treated properly without external assistance.
4 The seaman is easy to be under stress mentally
and also to be tired physically due to continuous
work and restrictive / isolated life.
5 Professional knowledge and skills in a high
degree are required for ship management because
a ship is a composition plant integrated with
various techniques of different fields.
6 Seaman must follow instructions and obey orders
absolutely in case of emergency.
7 The seaman must know the relevant facts well
about the international law and the environment
preservation since his ship calls at the
international ports.
2.2 Seaman’s needs
A talent and ability a seaman officer should have in
order to perform his duty are as follows:
1 High professional knowledge and technical skills
necessary for ship operation management.
2 Precaution and carefulness against potential of
danger and ability of its treatment when an
accident happens.
3 Collaboration and leadership abilities.
4 Neatness, arrangement and responsibility.
5 Time observance.
6 Strong mind and physical power.
7 Courtesy and education in human relationships.
2.3 Maritime Education characteristics
In order to train marine officers of talent and
capacity required in a sea service, maritime
education has characteristics as follows:
1 Completion of various courses necessary to the
ship operation management like basic science,
applied science, social science, and language
etc…
2 Completion of courses necessary to obtain
standard qualification such as various basic
educations provided by the international
convention.
3 Adaptation, self-restraint and leadership in a
specific environment, and also cultivation of
seamanship.
4 Field education through embarkation training.
5 Cultivation of treatment ability against danger in
an emergency.
6 Lifelong and continuous active and critical
learning.
3 GAME BASED LEARNING
The idea of using computer games for education is
not just a concept inspired by educators and
researchers, but is also found in leading game
designers’ description of the most basic incentives
for playing computer games. In the words of game
designer Chris Crawford (1982), “The fundamental
motivation for all game-playing is to learn”.
What is important is to consider how to integrate,
and not just add, games to the educational tool set,
blending them with learning activities. Integration
requires an understanding of the medium and its
alignment with the subject, instructional strategy,
student’s learning style, and intended outcomes.
Integration of games into curricula is much more
likely to be successful than mere game use.
3.1 Games are not simulations
Often, when we are talking about educational games,
we think of it as a simulated environment where
player can test his knowledge and skills. Simulation
in maritime education is a commonly used tool and
is often confused with games. In fact, simulation is a
quite different learning activity than games.
The close relationship and at the same time
difference, is best captured by Coleman’s (1973)
term simulation games that describe how simulations
299
become games when we apply goals to the possible
activities in the simulation. Goals are tied to the
conflict and necessary for the player to really invest
strong feelings in the game. Even when computer
games do not set up specific conflicts and goals most
players will invent their own, and use the simulation
to achieve these goals, making up their own game
experience.
Also, in simulations, the realism of the model has
high priority, whereas a computer game will often
sacrifice realism if it benefits the overall game
experience. Computer game is not primarily about
simulating, but rather providing an interesting
experience by the player fulfilling explicit goals.
Fig. 1. Games vs simulations
Thiagarajan (1990) suggests a useful division
between low fidelity and high fidelity simulations to
address the difference between game and simulation.
3.2 GBL and educational application level
Games can support all educational application level,
as STCW states, based on various game-world,
structure and play supported by different genres.
At the event level or Lesson level, a game may be
designed to facilitate one or more specific
instructional event within an instructional unit. A
relatively simple game, like adventure (quiz, puzzle)
or table top games for example, may be designed to
present learners with a scenario engaging their
interest and asking them to explore related concepts
through a series of readings and activities in order to
facilitate recall of factual content or to promote
active involvement and discussion (Dempsey, et all
1996).
At the unit level, a game incorporates all of the
events and activities necessary to achieve a specified
set of goals and objectives associated with an
instructional lesson or unit. That means the game,
like simulation games, will be designed to engage
learners, facilitate exploration, solicit explanations
and elaborations, and evaluate learning.
At the course level, one game is played
throughout an entire course, tying together all the
units, lessons and events associated with the course.
Business strategy simulation games are best suited
this case.
Fig. 2. GBL for all educational levels
The distinctions are important because the
process and resources necessary to apply pedagogy
(defined here as the science of teaching and learning,
including both youth and adult learning), for
designing and developing an instructional game may
differ significantly depending on the level of
application.
3.3 Games can support all learning needs
Similarly, game environment can support both the
mundane 'acquisition of facts' through drill and
practice, and the complex acquisition of process
skills through simulation (Kirriemuir J. et all, 2004).
Table 1. Learning theory, object and game genre
Aspect
Behaviorist
Cognitive
Constructivism
Learning
process.
Changes
behavior
Process entirely
in the head of
the learner
Discover and
transform
complex
information.
Purpose
in
education
Produce
behavioral
change in
desired
direction
Develop
capacity and
skills to learn
better.
Explore
mechanisms
built the
knowledge as
logical
sequence.
Learn
what
Facts, skills,
procedures.
Judgment,
Reasoning.
Theories,
Process
Game
genre
Action, sports,
role-play,
adventure,
tabletop.
Business
simulation,
adventure,
strategy.
Strategy,
adventure, open
ended
simulation.
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3.4 Teaching strategies and GBL
Nevertheless, games can incorporate many of the
referred teaching strategies. Games as instructional
means are characterized by many shared teaching
strategies independently form the game genre they
belong to. Analyzing game genres we focus on some
built in teaching strategies for each genre (Egenfeldt-
Nielsen, S., 2005).
Table 2. Game genre and suitable instructional strategy
Game
genre
Sub
genres
Supported Teaching
Strategies
Shared teach
ing
strategies
Action
games
Adventure
Pedagogical scenario,
Storytelling /
narratives, direct.
Group and
Cooperative
Learning.
Motivation
based learning.
Problem based
learning.
Active
Learning
(Learn by
Doing, Learn
by mistake)
Micro worlds
Interactivity,
prompt
feedback
Reinforcement
Engagement
theory
Experiential
Learning
Inquire-based
learning.
Case studies
Time on task
Direct instruction
Direct instruction,
object based learning.
Role-
playing
games
Pedagogical scenario,
role-playing.
Platform
games
Direct instruction
Simulation
games
Simulators
Concept mapping,
simulations, object
based learning, direct
instruction.
Sport
games
Direct instruction.
Strategy
games
and
tactical
Organization, project-
based learning,
concept mapping,
thematic instruction.
God
games
Project based
learning, thematic
instruction,
pedagogical scenario,
project based learning
storytelling /
narratives,
role-playing,.
Business
strategy
simulation
games
Pedagogical scenario,
storytelling /
narratives, thematic
instruction, project
based learning, role -
playing, concept
mapping, simulations.
3.5 Educational games’ structure
Stapleton and Hughes (2005) posit a schema that
helps illustrate how the results of fundamental ID
tasks on game’s main conventions facilitate the
design and development of instructional games.
Fig. 1. Game main conventions and ID events
Gaming main conventions
1. Story’s Intentional Learning (Instruction)
Character .. Worlds .. Events
2. Play’s Incidental Learning (Practice)
Stimulus .. Response .. Results
3. Game’s Intrinsic Learning (Performance)
Goals .. Tools .. Rules
Gaming fundamental ID tasks
1. Expose, Inquire,
2. Discover, Create,
3. Experiment, Share
4 EDUCATIONAL GAME DEVELOPMENT
FRAMEWORK
In order to produce educational computer games
beyond edutainment we must combine commercial
game developers – designers and instructional
designers / educators subject matter experts (Hirumi,
A. 2002). These two parts can be mediated if we
apply a suitable instructional strategy during game
design. The goal of an Instructional Strategy is to
incorporate education into games. The instructional
strategy proposed here is based on the instructional
design of Dick and Carey (2001) “Systems Approach
Model for Designing Instruction”.
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4.1 Analysis phase (What the game is about)
Table 3. Description of Analysis Phase
Tasks
Educators /
Instructional
designers
Game Designers /
Developers
Define
learning goals,
skills and
knowledge.
Assess needs,
education scope.
Reconcile formal
education lesson
plans. Decide
prerequisites and
learning outcome
level. Identify
suitable learning
theory.
Combine learning
goals with
entertainment
goals.
Identify game
complexity and
genre.
Create
learners’
profile
Make Learner
analysis (Entry
behaviors, needs,
learning method,
attitudes
demographics, game
experience).
Identify game
difficulty, levels,
challenges,
availability and
interface.
Learning
context and
scope
Instructional design,
assessments,
educational and
instructional
resources.
Decide hardware
requirements,
resources,
networking
Performance
context
Game world settings
and learning
activities. Check the
analogies between
reality and imaginary
game world. Draft
IMS-LD document.
User interface,
game genre.
Make a draft
game story.
System dynamic
tools may be
used.
Basic
instructional
approach
Design structure
Game genre,
game play.
Decide game
design approach
method.
Analysis phase results.
Concept document includes short descriptions of:
1 The Premise or High Concept (what makes the
game exciting and sets it apart from other games),
2 Player Motivation (game’s victor condition),
3 Game Play (what player will do while playing)
4 Story (main events, characters, and settings),
5 Target Audience/Market,
6 Game Genre,
7 Target Platform, Hardware Requirements,
8 Game Goals.
4.2 Design phase (Fleshing out the details)
Table 4. Description of Design Phase
Tasks
Educators /
Instructional designers
Game Designers /
Developers
Game play
Generate objectives.
Associate learning
activities with learning
objects and objectives.
Game play (players’
actions, strategies,
motives and game’s
reactions. User
Controls)
Game rules.
Factor analysis and
system dynamics on
player activities and
game world events.
Game structure (the
rules of the game
applied to players and
simulated environment.
Artificial Intelligence.)
Game world,
competition.
Cluster and sequence
the objectives.
Communicate the
organization of
objectives to
developers. Create the
IMS-LD document.
Define game levels by
considering game and
instructional flow,
duration, availability,
relationships and
difficulty. Define the
overall story. User
interface.
Delineate
Learner
Assessment
Methods
Assess What: Concrete
entertainment goals
and objectives
Assess When:
Before game starts,
At the beginning of
each level, during or at
the end of each level,
after the game.
Assess Where and
how: Integrated within
the game,
Conventional criterion
referenced testing
methods or product
and performance
checklists.
Determine learner
assessment and ensure
alignment between
objectives and
assessments.
Decide game rewards
and penalties as
assessments’ results.
Apply
Grounded
Strategies
and Events
Identify instructional
events associated with
the instructional
approach or strategy
selected during
concept development.
Verify that grounded
instructional strategies
and events are
embedded within the
artistic story and game
play.
Integrate grounded
instructional strategies
and events with story
events to optimize GBL
exploiting similarities
and resolving
differences in story and
instruction. Integrate
one or more grounded
events to facilitate the
achievement of terminal
objective.
Begin
Formative
Evaluations
Expert reviews by subject matter experts as well
as media, learning and human factors specialists
One-to-one evaluations identify and remove the
most obvious errors in the instruction and to
obtain initial reactions to the content from
learners.
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Revision
Identify difficulties
experienced by
learners in achieving
objectives and relate
these difficulties to
specific deficiencies
in the instruction.
Re-examine the
validity of the
instructional analysis
and the assumptions
about the entry
behaviors and
characteristics of
learners. Review the
instructional strategy.
Verify game difficulty
suits to specific players.
Check the consistency of
game story and the
integration of game
objectives. Ensure game
controls and user interface
are simple and easy of
use. Make sure players
knows what to do at each
level – part of the game.
Examine if player is
motivated, if assessments
does not break game flow
and if game is attractive
and pleasant.
Design Phase Results
1 IMS – LD document. IMS Learning Design
focuses on the organization of learning activities.
Modern pedagogical theory insists on the
importance of scenarios, i.e. story-boards that
define learning activities. The IMS Learning
Design Specification (IMS-LD) provides a very
thorough framework for evaluating the
capabilities of software tools within the learning
design space and also a platform-independent
notational convention to allow sharing and re-use
of these designs
2 Game design documents (GDD), it is an
extension of the concept document, a project
overview and detail descriptions of: Game world,
Game play, Game structure, Art, Audio and
Technical Features, Production Details
3 The Art Bible establishes the look and feel of the
game and provides a reference for other art. It
helps ensure consistency in style throughout the
game and typically consists of:
− A set of visuals (ranging from pencil sketches
to digitised images that capture final look of the
game); and
− A visual reference library that reflects the
direction the art should take over time.
4 The Technical Design Document is based on the
GDD and includes a description of:
− The game engine, including comparisons with
other engines on the market;
− How game will transition from concept to
software;
− Who will be involved in the development of
the game engine, including what tasks each
person will perform, and how long it will take
to perform each task;
− What core tools needed to build the game;
including hardware and software that must be
purchased.
5 Game prototypes.
4.3 Production Phase
Table 1. Description of Production Phase
Tasks
Educators /
Instructional
designers
Game Designers /
Developers
Complete
Formative
Evaluations
Small group
evaluations are to
determine the
effectiveness of
changes made
following the one-to-
one evaluation.
Field trials are
recommended for the
Beta version of
instructional games.
The primary purposes
at this stage of
production are to
complete testing, fix
all bugs, fine tune
performance, and
ensure the game may
be used in its
intended setting.
Game developers
create and test
prototypes, during
design phase, and
various versions of
games during
production. Such
tests tend to focus
on ease of use,
documenting and
fixing programming
bugs, and ensuring
the game is (still)
fun to play.
Production Phase results
For the Alpha version, the game is playable from
start to finish, but there may be few gaps and the art
assets may not be final. Game engine and user
interface are both complete. Production of the Beta
version focuses on fixing bugs and the integration of
all assets. The objectives are to complete testing
(including use on all supported platforms), bug
fixing and performance tuning. For the Gold version
the product has been reviewed and finalized and is
ready for production.
Fig. 4. General IMS-LD objects
5 GAME PROPOSAL “THE CAPTAIN”
An educational game for maritime industry is under
development according to the above framework.
Analysis phase has completed and results are
presented at the following brief concept document.
303
Table 6. Concept document
The Premise
or High
Concept
An educational game with embedded
instructional design and assessments that will
still be fun to play. An interesting and
intriguing game story and game play for the
target audience.
Player
Motivation
Increase your earnings, and gain the reputation
of best captain.
Game Play
Navigation, travel cost estimation, crew
administration and commercial management of
a cargo ship.
Story
You are the captain of a merchant ship. Find a
cargo contract suitable for your ship, make a
contract, get to the port where you will load the
cargo at specific date/time, deliver it to the
destination port, and then you get paid
according to the contract. Take care of your
ship; buy food supplies, petrol, deck supplies
and take care of your crew. A lot of incidents
may arise during your travel, like crew
diseases, navigation faults, port strikes, port
traffic, bad weather, engineering problems, ship
damages and much more. You can predict and
overcome most of these problems if you take
right decisions and act consequently.
Competitor captains do their best too.
Target
Audience /
Market
Seamen and maritime students of merchant
maritime industry.
Game Genre.
First person, business strategy, real time
simulation game.
Target
Platform,
Hardware
Windows platform, standalone pc with high
quality graphics card, 512 MB RAM and 17’’
monitor.
Game goals.
The purpose of the game is to become the best
captain since your career is just beginning.
Navigate, charter and administer your crew
better than competitors.
The second phase is in progress. Some results are
presented according to the IMS – LD document.
Fig. 5. Chartering concepts, Facts, Principe and Procedures
6 CONCLUSION
Educational Games is a promising emerging
technology suitable for educational needs of
maritime industry. GBL can be applied not only to
onboard education but also to formal maritime
education as a supplementary tool in the process of
active and critical learning. Educational Games can
be adjusted almost to any learning needs if it is
designed under a framework such as the one it is
proposed in this paper, and developed by a team
formed by instructional designers, field masters
educators, game designers and game developers.
Further work on this subject contains the
development of the game described in this paper and
the evaluation of its application to several cases in
maritime industry.
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